Augustus' reign - 30BC - 14AD Flashcards
what were the problems faced by A at the start of his reign
-consequences folllowing JC assasination
-during the second triumverate
-civil war with MA
-following the battle of actium
problems faced following JC death
Immediately Following the Assassination of Caesar
Octavian was from a politically insignificant family, the Octavii. This meant he had little or no power; he needed to make people aware of who he was
Needed to be seen as Caesar’s legitimate heir but he did not want any links to ‘Dictator in Perpetuity’
He was not in Rome at the time of Caesar’s assassination, but was on a military campaign. Caesar’s supporters were riled up by Antony, not himself and this is what caused Brutus and Cassius to flee
He was only 18 – politically inexperienced
problems during the 2nd triumverate
The aims of the Triumvirate were: o Establishing himself as Caesar’s legitimate heir; he was only 18 at the time of the assassination and became a member of the Senate immediately after, despite the usual minimum age being 30 o Avenge the death of Caesar o Stability throughout Rome and the Empire
Establishing himself as a military general – Imperator – against individuals including Sextus Pompeius and Lepidus
The Senate knew what he was attempting to do through the proscriptions but how well did the plebeians know of his actions?
problems during the civil war with MA
Could not have it seen as a civil war because it would be perceived as a power-grab
Had to convince the Romans that he was preferable to Antony, despite him being seen as a well-respected and military general. Antony had the support of 300 Senators
He needed to carefully manage his image; linking himself to Apollo showed the idea of civilisation triumphing over barbarism
Antony knew that he was not seen to be the legitimate heir, so he attempted to proclaim Caesarion as the rightful heir to Caesar’s power
He needed to show his loyalty and dedication to Rome
problems following the battle of actium
How does he retain power without drawing attention to the fact that he was essentially a ‘rex’?
He is seen as a pharaoh – king – in Egypt
He could not appear to hold unconstitutional power
Did not want to be assassinated like Caesar. Therefore, he needed to separate himself from the problematic attributes of Caesar’s character, but keep those that were beneficial for him He needed the Romans to maintain the belief that he was the best man to govern Rome and the Empire
7,000 dead as a result of Actium
Needed to alter the cultural memory of the Romans
how did Augustus save the republic
-attributes given to him during his rise to power may now make him look like a tyrant
-created a series of settlements to ensure he had the right to govern
what was the first settlement
28-27 BC
-28 BC - octavian elected as princeps senatus- allowed him to speak first in meetings and direct the activity of the senate to an extent
-27 BC relinquished all unconstitutional triumvir powers he had held
what did the handing over of unconstitutional powers signify
-that the end of the civil war period was over
-return to stability
-not hold absolute power indefinitly
Aureus with head of O and seated on a bench holding a scroll
Octavian seated on a bench
Date: 28BC
Obverse: Head of Octavian with Civic Crown
Reverse: Octavian seated on bench holding scroll
Text:
Imperator Caesar, son of a god, consul for the sixth time; He restored the laws and rights to the People of Rome
Significance:
Introduces the idea that Octavian was a saviour of the Republic
Imperator: text
Divi Filius: text
Civic Crown: saviour of the Republic for ending the civil wars – Cultural Hero
Restorer of laws and rights to the people – text – Culture Hero
Octavian in toga with scroll: image of peace and justice – Culture Hero
how did O manipulate his power in the eyes of the people
-in public - deemed a hero - kept powers long enough to see through period of crisis before retuing to his role as a memeber of the senate
-in reality - he hardly lost any power at all - awarded with several honours and as consul he encouraged the sneate to vote - providing him with further powers
what honours did the senate bestow upon O
-civic crown
-provinces of Spain,Hispania ,Gaul,Egypt and Syria - control of grain supply
-Princeps - leading man - but no actual power
-Clipeius Virtutis sheild - ennscribed with the four cardinal values: virtus, celmentia, iustita ,pietas
-gave him the name Augustus - dervies from latin to increase
what name did augustus decline and why
-romulus due to its association with
-being a king
-wrong doing of Romulus eg killed brother, rape of the sabine women
how was politics intertwinned with religion
-promminent politicians would hold priesthoods
how did Augustus involve himself in state religion
-member of almost every priestly college
-revied priestly colleges eg arval brethren and the Flamen Dialis
-revived religous festivals such as the Lupercalia
why was A so keen to involve himself in state religion
-used as part of his personal brand
-appeal to more conservative membesr that rome was returning back to traditional morals as they felt the neglect of the gods caused the downfall of rome
denarius with sacrifical implements
-mineted in conjugation with A being elected pontifex Maximus in 12 BC
Obverse: He has a youthful image
Reverse:
Lituus, Simplun - sarcificial implements
Tripod and Patera
Significance:
Reinforces the connections between Augustus and state religion
His role as a religious leader
He is performing sarcifices, which connects him with the gods
Lituus is used for augury and he is a member of the College of augurs
why was A often shown as youthful in coinage
-Apollo- his patron diety was often depicted as youthful - providing a further link between the two
-discourage the idea he was older and weaker
-most people in the empire and rome had not seen him in person so he could protray the image he wanted to
what was the most visable sign of A as a religous leader
-restoration of the temples
temples had fallen into disrepair - many belived this was nelgect was responsible for recent trouble - neglect the gods
-Start in 28 bc - 82 temples restored
many new temples built
-Jupiter Feretrius - contracts and marriages
-Minerva
-The great Mother
-Temple to Apollo on the Palatine hill - directly next to A house
res gestae 20
lists the temples that he restored
suetonius 29 and 31
-major accomplishments
-gives the idea of him as a religious and moral reformer
-building programme was generous and extensive
-generally postive influence on religion
-‘He likewise revived some old religious customs, which had become obsolete’
-‘A great number of public buildings were erected by him’
propertius elgeies 4.6
The Temple of Apollo at Actium
Date: 16BC
Significance: recalls the Battle of Actium and glorifies the Temple of Palantine Apollo + Actian Games
Key arguments:
The temple of Palatine Apollo is the setting and theme of the poem → praises Augustus
The opening stanza is evocative of a festival day complete with a ritual sacrifice - the identity of the narrator is unclear
Propertius goes onto invoke Calliope, the muse of the epic poetry → this seems like an odd choice since Propertius is not writing epic poetry but elegy
Calliope’s name elevates the status of his work and the theme of his work to the lofty height of epic, which is seen to be the highest form of literature in antiquity
Propertius moves away from the theme of the Temple of Platine Apollo and begins to retell the story of the battle of Actium
All the might of Rome’s gods in invoked here with Propertius making reference to Quirus, Jupiter, Nereus and Apollo
Apollo’s awe-inspiring appearance is described through comparisons with myth and then the gods proceeds to speak directly to Augustus, lavishing praise upon him and declaring his allegiance: “O Augustus, world-deliver, sprung from Alba Longa acknowledged as greater than your Trojan ancestors conquer nowby sea: the land is already yours: my bow is on your side and every arrow burdening my quiver favours yours“
Propertius is clearly referring to the close personal bond that Augustus suggested he had Apollo
Focus here is on the glory of Apollo and how we worked alongside Augustus to secure victory
This version of events is in stark contrast with his previous treatment of the Battle of Actium
Towards the end of the poem, the tone shifts yet again as the scene moves away and back to the festival atmosphere of the beginning “I have sung of war enough: Apollo the victor now demands my lyre and shreds this weapons for the dance of peace”
He stresses the peace and plenty that have arisen as a result of Augustus’ victory in war
Also refers to ritual symbols such as “white robes”, “gentle grove” and “roses”
An interesting reference to Bacchus complicates the atmosphere: “Let the muse fire the mind of drunken posts Bacchus you are used to being an inspiration to your Apollo”
Antony defeated his god is now united with Augustus’ patron deity just as all of Rome had be- come united
why were the roman civilians sick of war
-men are expected to fight for the army - conscripted
-glory obtained through war - rome benfitted from the booty and slaves that were taken as prizes of war
-decades of civil war had decimated the popand many looking forward to a period of long peace
-A recognises this and ensured it was brought to the forefront of his military campaign
how did A association with Pax prevent him from being overthrown
-the peace that rome was having was due to the leadership of A
-thus overhtrowing him would remove this peace from rome and threaten its prosperity
-wars were seen as a nessecity to ensure peace or past injustices
why was the return of the parthian standards such a significant event
-the parthians were a strong and powerful empire responsible for one of romes most humilaiating defeats
-in 53 BC Crassus’ poor leadership in an expedition to parthia resulted in 40000/50000 dying, himslef dying and the legionary standards being taken and displayed in parthia
-loss had a great effect on morale as they felt their supremecy was being undermined
20 BC
A sent tiberius to peacfully negotiate the standards and friendly realtions were established
some were angry parthia had not been made to pay but many were happy as there was not a loss of life
rplaced the standard in the temple of mars ultor
what did A make up about parthia
-made it seem like they had submitted to roman control although they never did
Propertius Elegies 3.4
War and Peace
Date: 20BC
Significance: they key event at the time: the returning of the legionary standards from the Parthian campaign
Key arguments:
He looks at ahead to Augustus’ victory over the Parthians, stressing the wealth and material gain from the campaign, he extorts his readers to join in with the fighting to win glory and do their duty to Rome → “Men, the rewards are great: far lands prepare triumphs”
The patriotic tone of the poem is somewhat undercut in the final lines where it becomes apparent that Propertius has no intention of joining the battle himself as he looks out the window alongside his girlfriend watch- ing the triumphal procession, safe from harm → “I’ll begin to look, pressing my dear girl’s breast, and scan the names of captured cities.”
Propertius must have been a conflict poet, as they were encouraged to write patriotic poems with military themes but his persona was one of a pampered playboy than a serious soldier, in this poem we see this as he supports Augustus’ regime but he only engages himself to an extent
The prima porta of Augustus
-built in 20 BC
-made of marble
-significance
-marble statue thought to be a copy of the original statue that was vowed to A by the senate in 20bc - commissoned to celebrate A parthian campaign
How does the Prima Porta depict A as Pater Patriae
-depicted as a young man
-athleticism emphasised in the muscular legs, arms and in the breastplate’-clear visual reference to the doryphorus of Polycleitus - thought to embody physical perfection
-mimicking this pose implies A possed similar excellence
How does the Prima Porta depict A as imperator
-right arm in pose of a general or emperor adressing an army
-oratical pose
-general cloak suggests that he is adressing his troops
-left arm is positioned to hold a pole - now lost
-but also could have been holing a spear, consul staff or recaptured legioanry standard
what does the statue of cupid on the prima porta represent
-cupid son of venus and dolphin was one of her animals
-links A to Venus and the divine
-dolphin became symbol of A victory over MA
-descended from the gods
what does the barefoot ont he prima porta represent
-further link to the divine
-roman sculpture did not often show mortals as barefoot - more than mortal
-this version of A after death - doesnt want to be seen as a god in life
what does the prima porta breastplate show
-end of war - Parthian hands a roman the legionary standards - the roman is unkown
-Woman holding a cornucopia - could be pax/mother earth - symbol of peace and plenty
-romes alllies and conqured provinces
-inward facing sphinx - associated with Egypt - defeat of Cleo
-Apollo and diana
-respresentation of the heavens
Propertius Elegies 3.12
Chaste and Faithful Galla
Date: 20BC
Significance: provides a dissenting voice which stressed the negative impact of Augustus’ foreign campaigns
Key quotes: ‘how could you leave Galla crying’
Key arguments:
Not all artistic output of the Augustan period was supportive of the cam- paign at the edges of the Empire, Propertius focuses on the negative impact on the foreign wars on those who was left at home, Galla the wife of the addressee of the poem Postumus suffers because her husband is away at war
-“Postumus, how could you leave Galla crying, to follow Augustus’ brave standard as a soldier? Was the glory of Parthia’s spoils worth so much to you, with Galla repeatedly begging you not to do it? If it’s permitted may all you greedy ones perish equally, and whoever else prefers his weapon to his faithful bride!”
The image of the chaste and faithful Galla in tears begging her husband not to leave her to go on campaign aims to arouse the sympathies of the reader, it is difficult to side with Augustus here as the motivation for Parthia is for material gains, where other poems emphasises the positive of foreign wars this poem bluntly reminds the reader that some soldiers do not return, imag- ining Galla fearfully waiting for rumour of his death of the sight of his ashes → This is similar to the story of Ulysses, the Latin name for Odysseus the Greek who is on travels trying to get home
-The question is does the comparison to Ulysses portray Postumus as a hero’s, if yes then support- ive of Augustus and if no the damming to both
why was a close relationship to JC in A early career
He needed to be recognised as he was from a politically insignificant family: the Octavii
Caesar had the favour of the urban poor, the largest social class within Rome – these values transferred onto him as he became a populares
Needed to portray himself as Caesar’s legitimate heir and more preferable to Antony
Good Imperator
He was only 18 and so was politically inexperienced; he relied on this relationship Divi Filius and Divine Lineage
Scholarship - Beard – ‘Caesar was Octavian’s passport to power
once A became established in the Princepate why did he need to adjust his relationship to JC
Too much power could make him seem like a tyrant or despot He had to alter the cultural memory in order to ensure that Actium was not perceived as a civil war
Could be seen to have the same level of power as Caesar, carrying the risk of assassination
Romans were against one-man rule; he needed to show that he had restored the Republic and saved it from ambitious politicians
Caesar had not been an ideal figure and as a result, he had many enemies within the Senate
Augustus had linked himself so strongly with Caesar that it would be hard to ‘divorce’ himself from this image
how did A change his image with JC
- focus on JC the god not JC the man
- remove association with the -ve things that he did
- JC beyond reproach as a god
- comet used to symbolise divinity
denarius with eight-rayed comet
Denarius with eight-rayed comet
Date: 19-18BC
Obverse: Portrait of Augustus with laurel wreath
Reverse: Eight rayed comet with tail pointing upward
Significance:
Star represents Caesar’s comet from the commemorative games
Symbolises Caesar as a god, rather than a portrait
Stresses his divinity and encourage people to forget him as a man
Who was Ovid
He was from an equestrian family, the second- highest social class
Extensively and expensively educated
Did not need patronage, unlike Horace who was a client of Maecenas
Early elegies ensured that he was popular and celebrated
He was exiled by Augustus
how did poetry benefit the Augustan age
Friendly with many poets of Maecenas’ inner circle such as Horace and Virgil
Fasti covered religious festivals of the Roman calendar; filled with stories of origins and festivals, making reference to the ones restored by Augustus
Not Anti-Augustan, Metamorphoses ends by predicting the deification of Caesar
In the Fasti, he promotes patriotism, traditional worship and respect, according to Augustus’ own behaviour
how was Ovids poetry not beneficial to A
Ars Amatoria (2 AD) showed the futility of Augustus’ legislation on marriage and adultery
Early works show independence from the ‘party line’ – he had his own views
Erotic and playful nature of his elegies may have offended Augustus personally
Ovid Metamorphoses 15.745-840
Date: 8AD
Significance: provides the narrative account of Julius Caesar + the reasons for his promotions
Key arguments:
His poem deals with the theme of metamorphoses (change) of Augustus’ change with Julius Caesar
Ovid wanted this poem to encompass the stories of the whole universe and so it begins with creation and via a large number of myths and it ends with a celebration of the most recent metamorphosis at Ovid’s time of writing
The deification of Julius Caesar
The section starts by outlining the reason why Julius Caesar was made a god
Ovid’s account of Julius Caesar’s achievements is very brief and vague but this ensures the reader is not reminded of the events of Julius Caesar’s dictatorship nor of his civil wars
Ovid goes onto explain the reason why Julius Caesar was deified: “There is no greater achievement among Caesar’s actions than that he stood father to our emperor”
In these lines Ovid stresses Julius Caesar’s relationship to Augustus encouraging the reader to focus on this aspect as well -Ovid then lists some of Julius Caesar’s military victories in the next lines but again he stresses that these achievements pale into insignificance when compared with his relationship to Augustus
At the end of the list Ovid invites his reader to reimagine their own history: “Therefore, in order for the emperor not to have been born of mortal seed, Caesar needed to be made a god”
Following this explanation the scene shifts to the home of the gods
Venus the progenitor of the Julian clan is frantic as she realises that Julius Caesar is about to be assassinated
She catalogues the pains she has had to suffer first at the hands if the mortal hero Diomede during the Trojan War,
Then as her son Aeneas was forced to wander in search of a new city
The assassination of Julius Caesar is elevated to mythological status by association with these events from Roman legend
Despite Venus’ protests it is clear that the assignation has been fates to occur Jupiter King of the gods and voice of fate reassures Venus that Julius Caesar’s time to die has come but his son Augustus will avenge him:
“Augustus, as heir to his name, will carry the burden placed upon him alone, and will have us with him, in battle as the most courageous avenger of his father’s murder.”
By outing this prophecy (which goes on to detail events in the civil wars) in Jupiter’s mouth, Ovid legitimizes Octavin’s civil wars.
This section also underlines a specific aspect of Augustus’ relationship with Julius Caesar: Augustus as his avenger
Ovid described Julius Caesar’s metamorphosis into a comet and ends hi account by showing him contemplating Augustus’ deeds from on high and judging them superior to his own
Ovid praises Augustus as greater than his father and goes so far as to suggest that he too will become a god: “I beg that the day be slow to arrive, and beyond our own lifetimes, when Augustus shall rise to heaven, leaving the world he rules, and there, far off, shall listen, with favour, to our prayers!”
Why had Rome reduced its tradtional standards and morals
-decline in moral standards
-given way to ideas of luxery and indulgnce - increased nature of personal advancement and enrichment
-sexual morals had seen a decline and icrease in adultery caused two major issues
-no certaintiy of childrens parternity
-chaste women were believed to have a speical potency in religous ceremonies - lobved by the gods
-many thought that this wa sthe reason for toubles
Horace Odes 3.6
Moral Decadence
Date: 23BC
Significance: : deals with the issue of moral laxity + links this with misfortunes that had befallen the Roman people in recent years / explore the insecurity held by many Romans in the recent civil wars
Key quotes: ‘you’ll still expiate your father’s sins, till you’ve restored the temples’, ‘meditate sinful affairs’
Key arguments:
Horace explore an insecurity held by many Romans that the recent civil wars and defeats suffered from foreign enemies were punishments from the gods and they were angry be- cause of two reasons: “Romans, though you’re guiltless, you still expiate your fathers’ sins”
They allude to a great misdeed committed by a prior generation, it could refer to the very founding of Rome when Romulus killed his twin brother Remus
This was the first act of civil conflict in Rome and some Romans believed that the civil wars that he plagued all of Rome’s history were punishment for this act
Horace proceeds to suggests another reason: the gods are angry because the people have been neglecting their religious duties and hammers his point home wit a catalogue of Rome’s recent military embarrassments
The cause of military failure is attributed to a slip in the moral standards of living Romans → here Horace shifts his blame from the “fathers” of previous generations and aims his accu- sation firmly at his contemporary Romans: “Our age, fertile in its wickedness, has first defiled the marriage bed, our offspring, and homes: disaster’s stream has flowed from this source through the people and the fatherland”
Roman religious belief held that chaste women were particularly loved by the gods ad so there were several religious rituals that required that the participants be married and chaste
This was particularly true in times of national emergency → the Romans also believed that the gods hated infidelity which is why Horace links recent military failures with the idea of sexual morals
The closet Rome came to defat was at the Punic wars and so the Romans who fought in them were seen as heroes which Horace praises to → and to get the gods back on the Ro- mans side they must behave well and look for example from he heroes and that the temples are restored
what does Pater Patriae mean
father of the state
how did Augustus act as Pater Patriae
-given to A in 2bc - set a strong example thorugh the behaviour of the imperial fam
-needed to inspire the people of rome to chnage their ways through encouraging them to look upon him as a father figure
when were the leges Iuliae introduced
18-17 BC
what were the leges Iuliae
laws that regulated the behaviour of citizens
they encourgaed marriage and childbearing, making adultery a crime with severe punishments for all parties - fathers could murder their daughters if they comitted
there was some touble in implementing these laws - open rebellion and attempts to circumnavigate these laws
Life of Augustus Section 34
-discusses the leges Iuliae and the problems that occured when implementing these laws - brought into question whether A was an effective moral reformer
-open rebellion to the laws - most led by individuals from the upper class
-people wanted laws removed, softened or immunties enxtended
- people flouted the rules - some by marrying young girls the gettng divorced and remarried
-
Life of Augustus sections 58 and 64
discusses A being given the title Pater Patriae and how he sought to control the behaviour of his grandchildren
the extent that this can be believed is debatable but they live to remain as a rep of his behaviour
Life of Augustus section 57
-shows how A himself behaved in accordance with morality laws and sought to exemplify correct behaviour
-A had modest tatse and his home on the Palatine hill was not a spectacular palace and he did not appear in public luxuriously
-hoped to discoruage others from behaving incorrectly
how was Livia the ideal roman matrona
- wove all of A clothes - winning him pop with conservatives as is traditional
- grease tg the wheels of business and politics
- took part in religious festivals and sacrifice
-manner in which she behaved and conducted herself was exemplary
-respresented trad values
when her son died she mourned him but did it in public to comprise with roman custom
Horace Odes 3.14
Augustus Returns
Date: 23BC
Significance: celebrates Augustus’ return from foreign campaign + stress on morality, mentions Octavia and Livia as role models
Key quotes: ‘matchless husband’
Key arguments:
Was written to commemorate the return of Augustus from military cam- paigns in Gaul → it touches on themes of Augustan poetry: the peace that comes from war, prosperity for the Roman people and the importance of religious observances
It is notable for the way it holds up the women of the imperial household as role models for the audience “May his wife rejoice in a matchless husband, having sacrificed to true gods, appear now with our famous leader’s sister, and, all dressed in holy ribbons, the mothers of virgins and youths, now safe and sound”
Livia is explicitly linked with the practice of Roman religion as she has been participating in ritual sacrifice → her virtue is highlighted even more strongly because she has been sacrificing in her husbands absence
Augustus trusts her to maintain the affairs of the household and to honour the gods while he is away
who was Julia the elder and why was she a problem for A
-A only biological child
-not a good role model
-2 bc she was accused of adultery by A
-he dealt with the issue in a manner that reinforced his personal and moral agenda - in accordance with the leges iuliae she was exiled from Rome
who was Julia the Younger
-A granddaughter - daughter of Julia the elder
-8 AD accused of adultery - sent into exile
-gave birth to a child who A rejected and refused to rear
-between 1-14 AD her husband was exucuted for conspriing against A
-A could sistance himself from their misdeeds and preserve his own rep
Life of Augustus section 65
explains the deaths and scandals of the imperial fam
-gives the impression that other facors excluding adultery forced them into exile
-Pheobe - Julias friend - was aware of her behaviour and killed herself
- A was ashamed of his daughters actions and wihsed she had died instead
- disgusted with the behaviours of his “three tumours”
what did A encourage his regin to be
a new gooden age - greek and roman myth told of an idyllic golden age
what did Hesiod say of the Saturnian Golden age
-first race of men lived carefree lives - free from suffering and hard work
-loved by the gods
-spent theirs duys in unending feasts
how did A prevent himself being overthrown - linking to hesiod
-Golden age presided over by Saturn - ended when Jupiter overthrew him
-implying that anyone who overthrew A would end the goldne age
how did A mark the start of the new golden age
-17 Bc - ludi Saeculares
-claimed this was prophesised in the sybilline books
-those who had been banned form the games due to thier umarried status under the leges Iuliae were allowed to participate
-lasting peace, abundance and prosperity were all emphasised
-this blessed state could only be maintained throught moral vigilance and diligent religious observance and continued loyalty to A
Horace Carmen Saeculare
Date: 17BC
Significance: composed to be performed during the ludi seculars 17BC
Key quotes: ‘Phoebus, Diana’, ‘mightier than rome’
Key arguments:
It addresses carious gods praising their greatness and asking for blessings on the Roman people → the deities selected for inclu- sion each had some connection to Augustus himself or to his regime
For example his patron god Apollo and Apollo’s twin sister Diana feature as the addresses of the hymn - As in previous poems when speaking of Apollo Horace distinguished between warlike Apollo and peaceful Apollo perhaps a veiled reference to the militaristic and civic versions of Augustus himself “Gentle and peaceful Apollo, lay down your arms, and listen now to the young lads’ supplications”
Venus also features, in her role as the mother of Aeneas and the progenitor of the Julian clan → at first the presence of Ilithyia a relatively minor goddess of childbirth is less explicable, however the reason for her inclusion is explained through a clear reference to Augustus’ social and moral legislation Horace beseeches Ilithiya: “Goddess, nurture our offspring, bring to fruition the Senate’s decrees concerning the wedlock of women who’ll bear us more children, the laws of marriage
Horace’s Carmen Saeculare is clearly intended to be a celebration of Augustus’ new age → the language of fertility reminds the audience of the Golden Age of peace and plenty that Augustus brought
References to religious and social reforms simultaneously remind the audience how they are expected to
deabate about the golden age
-did he rig the declaration
-desire to return to the golden age had been before A time - celebrated Saturnalia every december
Horace Odes 4.15
To Augustus
Date: 13BC
Significance: communicates the idea that peace and prosperity reign in Rome, thanks to Augustus
Key quotes: ‘brought back Parthian pillars’, ‘gates of Romulus’ temple’
Key arguments:
Opens with a self-deprecating apology → Horace tells his reader that he had tried to write military poetry but Apollo had stopped him “Phoebus condemned my verse, when I tried to sing of war and conquered cities”
Whether this is meant literally or as a reference to Augustus’ personal influence on Horace’s literary career is unclear
Horace goes on to explain that now Crassus’ standards have been recovered from the Parthians and the gates of Janus’ temple have been closed there is no with the renewed prosperity of Italy
Horace explicitly states that this blessed state of peace and plenty exists because of Augustus’ position at the head of the state: “With Caesars protecting the state, no civil disturbance will banish the peace, no violence, no anger that forges swords, and makes mutual enemies of wretched towns”
This links closely with the myth of the Saturnian Golden Age, where a charmed state of peace and plenty brought about a single ruler
By inviting his readers to make his link Horace is most likely supporting Augustus’ regime by suggesting that should Augustus be overthrown the Golden Age would end just as when Saturn was overthrown by Jupiter
In closing lines of the poem Horace suggests rekindling the old Roman tradition of singing stories of past leaders on festival days
This ties in with Augustus’ own drive to restore Roman religious practice to its bygone glory days and also give Horace the opportunity to praise Augustus’ ancestors: “we’ll sing of Troy Anchises, and the people of Venus
Aureus of A giving out suffiementa
Augustus distributing suffimenta to the people
Date: 16BC
Obverse: Laureate Augustus
Reverse: Three figures – Augustus distributing suffimenta (gifts of sulphur to make torches for rituals during the festival) to the people before the ludi saeculares
Text:
L ME-SCI-NIVS (Lucius Mescinius Rufus – name of magistrate who minted the coin, helps date to 16BC)
AUG SVF P (Augustus Suffimenta Populo – Augustus having given suffimenta to the people)
LUD S (Ludi Saeculares)
-idea of A as a benefactor for the people of rome
how did A ensure a smooth transition of power
-no set precedent for what would happen after A death - as principate was ot hereditary
-groom his younger male relatives for power
who were A adopted sons
-Gaius and Lucius
-his grandsons
-ideal canditates as related by blood and had a rep for great military and political achivements
when were Gaius and Lucius presented to rome
-gaius - 13 bc at the Troy game - equestrian
-lucius - troops stationed near the rhine
-began to appear on official coinage
how did Gaius and Lucius die
-gaius - killed on campaign in armenia in 4 AD
-lucius taken ill in gaul and died 2 AD
Aureus of A and Gaius and lucius as princeps Inventutis
Aureus with Gaius and Lucius as first among the young
Date: 2BC-4AD
Mint: Lyon Mint
Obverse: Augustus wearing civic crown (awarded for ending the civil wars and saving Roman citizens)
Reverse:
Princes with shields and spears – displays their military might (or honorary spears given to nobility)
simpulum (ritual ladle) and lituus (crooked wand) – refer to the priestly colleges they were connected to; display they are pious like Augustus
Text:
lists their achievements
Consul designate – decreed by Senate (will be consuls in future years)
Augustus’ sons – most important title – source of their power
Princeps iuventutis – title given to Gaius, no power but equated him with Augustus (who was often called the princeps)
Significance:
Depicts Gaius and Lucius as obvious successors to Augustus’ position
who were the next heirs of A - and why did they not succeed in doing so
Agrippa Postumus
Adopted by Augustus in 4 AD but he was never a strong contender for the succession
He was known to be brutish, insolent and violent
He resisted all efforts to improve his behaviour and as a result was exiled in 6 AD
Tiberius
Adopted in 4 AD; Augustus’ step-son
Had never been Augustus’ favourite and was never likely to be named as official heir
He had been a general in the army, with little involvement in political affairs
He went into self-imposed exile on Rhodes in 6 BC; the reason for this is unknown but it has been suggested that he was resentful of his arranged marriage to Julia the Elder
He was summoned back to Rome in 2 AD after Lucius had died
Horace odes 4.4
Drusus and the Claudius
Date: 13BC
Significance: : focuses on the military achievements of Tiberius and Drusus and the role of Augustus as a father-figure
Key quotes: ‘like the winged agent of the bright lighting bolt’, ‘with care, in a fortunate household, by Augustus’ fatherly feelings’
Key arguments:
Horace celebrates the achievements of Tiberius and Drusus against the Germanic tribes living around the Alps in 15-14 BC
When reading of the achievements of the young generals that Augustus was the supreme com- mander in Rome and thus technically responsible for all military victories
By praising the successes of Tiberius and Drusus he is indirectly glorifying Augustus himself
Towards the beginning of the poem a simile compares Drusus to a ‘lion-cub newly weaned from fresh milk’
This simile coveys the youth and inexperience of Drusus but does not suggest that he is an ineffective commander
The lion-cub of Horace’s simile is fated to kill a deer despite its inexperience
Horace intended for the audience to be impressed by the innate power and skill of the lion-cub of the audience to be impressed by the innate power and skill of the lion-cub and thus of Drusus
A central theme of the poem is the role education and proper upbringing → when this poem was published Tiberius and Drusus was Augustus’ step-sons
Nevertheless Horace praises the role Augustus played in shaping the men they had become: “They came to realise what mind and character nurtured, with care, in a fortune household, by Augustus’ fatherly feelings towards his stepsons, the Neros, could do”
Drusus is subsequently likened through a simile to a lion
With this innate skill and careful nurturing by Augustus he is shown to be an impressive young man indeed
Horace goes onto mention one of the most glorious achievements of Tiberius and Drusus’ ances- tors; the defeat of the Carthaginian general Hasdrubal by Gaius Claudius Nero in 207 BC during the Punic wars
This victory was particularly sweet to the Romans since Hasdrubal was the brother of the infamous Hannibal
The final section of the poem takes the form of a speech put in the mouth of Hannibal himself → He curses the foolishness of the Carthaginians to pit themselves against the power of Rome and pours such flattery that it seems completely unbelievable
Augustus building programme
-suetonius - found a city of brick, he left as marble
-A tasked Agrippa with organsing and funding many if the projects to improve the quality of life for the urban residents
what did Agrippa construct during the building programme
-33 bc - overhauled cities water supply and improved the aqueducts
-construction of the Pantheon - dedicated to all of the gods
what did A show the noblemen by allowing Agrippa to participate in the building programme
-showing how they could gain fame for themselves - as A being the uncontested leader meant they had little opp to win renown
what buildings to A specifically focus on
-restored the basilica Ameilia and Basilica Julia - both multi-functional civic places that incorperated law courts and spaces for business - this was nessacry as the pop of rome was increasing at such an extent that the old law courts could not handle the vol of cases
-moved the pomperium - siginifed the sclae and grandeur of the city
-completion of projects started by Caesar - Forum of JC and the Curia of JC - linked the relationship bwt them
-forum of Augustus
-ara pacis
examples of some of the projects being undertaken in the building programme
-restored temples
Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus
Lupercal Cave
Temple of Saturn
new religious buildings
Temple of Mars Ultor
Temple to the Deified Julius Caesar
Temple of Apollo on the Palatine Hill
Pantheon
civic buildings
Curia
Forum of Augustus
Forum of Julius Caesar
public amenities
Aqueducts
Flaminian Way
Theatre of Pompey
Public Baths
public monuments
Lupercal Cave
Triumphal Arches
when was the forum of Augustus built
20 Bc - completed in 2 AD
what was the most significant building in the forum of A
Temple of Mars Ultor - at the battle fo Philippi he vowed to erect a temple to Mars of he won
imported marble was used throughout which showed the geographical reach, power and wealth of the empire
-housed the parthian standards and was where the senate discussed triumphs and declerations of war - empahsied A pietas and role as imperator
what was the structure of the forum of augustus
-east/ A - central courtyard with two long porticos with statues on them - these were lined with stautues of famous romans - A ancestors, generals and politicians -east exedra -statue of romulus (C)
-west/ B - statue of A - west exedra - statue of Aeneas and his descendents eg Julian clan - embodyed the values of pietas
-central courtyard - one statue - a likeness of A riding a chariot drawn by 4 horses - inscription read PATER PATRIAE (D)
-temple of mars ultor (E) - overlooked the rest of the forum - temple contained a cult statue to Mars the avenger (F) - flanked by a statue to venus genetrix (the great mother) and the diefied JC
what was the Ara Pacis Augustae
-altar to Augustan peace
-pac central to A propaganda
the ara pacis
-13 BC - dedicated in 9 BC
-made from white marble
-located on the campus martius - bwt A mausoleum and the tiber
-in the res gestae 12 - senate vowed to dedicate the complex after A return from Hispania - A sytle of self-rpesentation and allows him to maintain an air of humility
-the subject of the altar and the reason for its dedication helped reinforce his regime: “peace through military strength”
location
-stood on the main road out of rome - a lot of foot traffic would pass it - meaning that it would be highly visible to the people of rome
-the campus martius was a large open space used by individuals from all socials including: the senate, the amry and the general pop
how are walls of the inner part of the ara pacis decorated
lower
-continuous band of plant life - central plant is a acanthus which is interwoven by vines
upper - decor has been lost but thought to have been highly decorated also
what are the symbolism of vines in rome
-symbol of the Augustan Golden age
-allude to fertility and natural bounty
-vines follow regualr symmetrical patterns - maybe just an aesthectic choice or that the fertility and plenty of the golden age is a result of strict social order
-comment on augustus’ rigidity of his regime
what are the panels around the ara pacis
Aeneas, romulus and remus, Goddess Roma, Tellus
front tells of romes historical ancestors
whilst back tells of myth
what is shown on the aeneas panel and what is its significance
-aeneas arrives in italy and sacrifices pigs to the Penates - gods of troy
-prophecy that A would found the city of rome when he saw a white sow with 30 piglets - as told in book 8 of the aenied
-has his head covered showing that he is taking part in religious rituals - pietas
POSSIBILITY
charcater is not aeneas but Numa, romes second king who founded thier religous traditons - likelehood is low as A was aware that he could not have any association with one-man rule
what is shown on the romulus and remus panal and what is its significance
Romulus and Remus as babies with she-wolf (educated guess)
Grown figures – Mars (left), Faustulus (right), shepherd who raised Romulus and Remus Connection to founding of Rome and Mars -father figures
-alludes to A indicating that he wants to be seen as the father of rome although has not been given the title yet
what is shown on the roma panel and what is its significance
Goddess Roma
Appears – seated on pile of weapons confiscated from enemy (peace by making them unable to make war)
Represents personification of Rome
Link between war and peace
what is on the Tellus panel and what is its significance
-named after earth mother Tellus
-Much debated on the central figure
Tellus – personification of earth (fertility and abundance)
Domesticated animals and flowers
Pax – Peace
Venus Genetrix – Venus the mother
Left – personification of sky
Right – personification of sea
Most common argument – Tellus
Fits with depiction of earth between sky and sea.
Domesticated animals and mother imagery consistent with this
babies represent the future of rome
what is show on the religious fireze/ panel
Religious procession
Over 50 figures (debate over who)
Agreed – Augustus, Livia, Agrippa
Toga not military dress – Civic leader and religious role model
Imperial children – children innovation in frieze art
Shows the future of Rome and continuation of the Golden age
show the importance of the imperial fam - in upholding traditional values but also setting out romes future
the Kalabsha gate
-30 BC
-limestone
-example of A diverse presentation throughout the empire
-Augustus is presented opposite the Egyptian goddess Isis on the Kalabsha Gate
-Part of a temple complex dedicated to a Nubian sun god named Mandulis
-Shows Augustus embracing the gods he did not associate himself with in the city of Rome
-Although never crowned ruler of Egypt, he is depicted in the style of the pharaohs
-They say ‘the Roman’ and ‘Caesar the god, son of a god’
-Dressed in Egyptian style – shirtless, large collar-style necklace, Egyptian style crown, short skirt
-identifed by cartouches
is it a postive thing that A is presented with the Egyptian gods
The Romans did not always impose their religion on the people of the Empire
Isis, for example, was a favorite deity of some Roman citizens despite her Egyptian origins
Thus it was not scandalous for Augustus to identify with gods like Isis or Mandulis
However, they weren’t used in his Roman imagery where he focused on gods like Apollo, Pax, and those related to the Julian clan
Other reliefs in the temple show Egyptian deities
crowning Augustus – show they approve of his rule
Also Augustus making offerings to Egyptian deities – still promotes his pious image
Meroe Head of A
Meroe Head of Augustus
Date: 27-25BC
Located: Sudan (but believed to have been originally in Egypt)
Style: Similar to Prima Porta - hellenistic approach
Significance: Evidence Augustus also depicted himself in Classical style outside Rome
Evidence Augustus presented a mixed image in Egypt, perhaps to cater to native Egyptians and Roman citizens living in Egypt
how did A manage the idea of ruler worship in the provinces
-augustsus didnt want to be worshipped as this could play poorly in rome - even though done out of a sign of respect
-encoruaged the worhsip of a new cult: rome and augustus
-so were worshipping him in assocation with roma - the personification of rome
-retained the impression that no ruler worship was taking place even though it was
eg temple of rome and augustus at Pula - 2-14 AD
-encouraged the worship of the divine JC and of his won genius -divinity
-associated the worship of his genius with the lares
