Attachment

Question 1

Caregiver-infant interactions in humans

-Reciprocity

Answer 1

• Interactions between caregiver and infant involving mutual responsiveness
• Baby and caregiver reciprocal interaction
• Evidence: Tronick et al (1975) ‘Still face’ experiment

Question 2

Caregiver-infant interactions in humans

-Interactional synchrony

Answer 2

• Interactions between caregiver and infant are ‘synchronised’ so that their responses reflect each other
• Evidence: Meltzoff and Moore (1997)

Question 3

Schaffer’s stages of attachment (1964)

1. Pre-attachment

Answer 3

• Babies are attracted to humans and can pick them out in their vision
• Smiling becomes main way of communicating
• Birth to 3 months

Question 4

Schaffer’s stages of attachment (1964)

2. Indiscriminate attachment stage

Answer 4

• Babies can distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar people in their lives, though they still allow themselves to be handled
• 3 to 7/8 months

Question 5

Schaffer’s stages of attachment (1964)

3. Discriminate

Answer 5

• Specific attachments start to be made, mainly to the primary caregiver
• Infants become distressed when in the sole company of strangers
• 7 to 8 months onwards

Question 6

Schaffer’s stages of attachment (1964)

4. Multiple attachments

Answer 6

• Other important caregivers become more important to the infant and they can be handled with more ease by strangers
• The primary attachment is still the strongest attachment
• 9 months onwards

Question 7

Multiple attachments

Answer 7

• Schaffer’s and Emerson’s research found that infants form multiple attachments around 10-11 months and by the age of 18 months, only 13% had a single attachment
• This suggests that infants are capable of forming multiple attachments if the opportunity arises, however the attachments may not be equal

Question 8

The role of the father

Answer 8

-In 2013, there were 5.3 million working mothers and stay at home fathers were on the increase, comprising of nearly 10%
-Key factors which affect relationship between father and child:
~Degree of sensitivity
~Type of attachment with own parents
~Marital intimacy
~Supportive co-parenting

Question 9

Explanations of attachment

-Learning theory

Answer 9

• This proposes that attachments are formed when an infant receives food; they learn to ‘love’ the person who feeds them
• Behaviourism in the learning theory is split into 2 parts:
• > Classical conditioning= Learning through associated stimulus with a response
• > Operant conditioning= Involves learning through rewards/punishment

Question 10

Explanations of attachment

-Bowlby’s monotropic theory

Answer 10

• Bowlby suggested that is important for infants to have 1 primary attachment figure whom they have a close bond with. This is because it allows for continuous care and keeps separations from primary caregiver to a minimum
• Bowlby also suggested that infants use social releasers, such as crying and laughing, to elicit caregiving

Question 11

Explanations of attachment

-Critical period

Answer 11

• Bowlby proposed that an infant must form an attachment within the first 2 years of their life. Once this passes, an attachment can never be formed (or it will be very difficult)
• During this time, infants are particularly sensitive to forming attachments
• Bowlby was heavily influenced by Lorenz
• This is a ‘window of development’ when an infant is most easily and quickly able to form an attachment

Question 12

Explanations of attachment

-Internal working model

Answer 12

• The concept that a child’s attachment to a caregiver, provides them with a ‘model’ of what relationships are like and how they work
• Therefore, if they form a loving, sensitive attachment then they will bring these qualities to other relationships they have in later life, with friends or romantic partners. This can act the opposite way if the quality of attachment is poor

Question 13

Types of Attachment

-Secure attachment

Answer 13

• An infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver
• Typical percentage found in UK studies = 70%

Question 14

Types of Attachment

-Insecure-avoidant attachments

Answer 14

• An infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver’s presence, departure or return
• Typical percentage found in UK studies = 15%

Question 15

Types of Attachment

-Insecure-resistant attachment

Answer 15

• An infants anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion
• Typical percentage found in UK studies = 15%

Question 16

Maccoby’s (1980) 4 key behaviours which show attachment

-Seeking proximity

Answer 16

The infant will try to stay close to the attachment figure (caregiver)

Question 17

Maccoby’s (1980) 4 key behaviours which show attachment

-Separation anxiety

Answer 17

Both caregiver and infant will experience and demonstrate signs of distress when seperated

Question 18

Maccoby’s (1980) 4 key behaviours which show attachment

-Pleasure when reunited

Answer 18

There will be obvious signs of pleasure from the child and caregiver upon being reunited

Question 19

Maccoby’s (1980) 4 key behaviours which show attachment

-General orientation of behaviour towards primary attachment figure (PAF)

Answer 19

The infant and caregiver will direct attention to each other and try to engage each other in activities and interaction. For example they engage in mutual gazing

Question 20

Bowlby’s Theory of Maternal Deprivation

Answer 20

• The term ‘maternal deprivation’ refers to the loss of maternal care with no substitute caregiver
• Bowlby’s theory proposed that: ‘Mothers love in infancy is just as important for a child’s mental health, as vitamins and minerals are for physical health’
• Separation from the mother (maternal deprivation) would - he believed - result in severe damage to a child’s social, emotional and cognitive development
• Bowlby proposed that the effects of maternal deprivation were irreversible and could not be counteracted by later care

Question 21

Long term effects of maternal deprivation

-Affectionless psychopathology

Answer 21

The inability to show affection or concern for others. Such individuals act on impulse with little regard for the consequences of their actions

Question 22

Long term effects of maternal deprivation

-Developmental retardation

Answer 22

Defined as cognitive ability that is marked well below average level and a decreased ability to adapt to one’s environment

Question 23

Long term effects of maternal deprivation

-Delinquency

Answer 23

Delinquency is behaviour violating social rules or conventions

Question 24

Long term effects of maternal deprivation (5)

Answer 24

1. Affectionless psychopathology
2. Developmental retardation
3. Delinquency
4. Increased aggression
5. Depression

Question 25

Definition of institutionalisation

Answer 25

Placement of an individual in an institution for therapeutic or correctional purposes

Question 26

Effects of institutionalisation

-Disinhibited attachment

Answer 26

-An attachment disorder in which a child has little to no fear of unfamiliar adults and may actively approach them

Question 27

Effects of institutionalisation

-Developmental retardation

Answer 27

• Abnormally slow maturation in any or all areas-> intellectual, motor, perceptual, linguistic or social
• Initially, all 165 Romanian Orphans were struggling with developmental delays and malnourishment but they slowly improved

Question 28

Effects of institutionalisation

-Deprivation dwarfism

Answer 28

-A syndrome of physical and psychological abnormalities characterised by the triad of extreme short stature, voracious appetite and marked delay in sexual maturation

Question 29

The influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships, including the role of an internal working model
-The continuity hypothesis and role of internal working model

Answer 29

• Bowlby argued that the nature of relationship we form with our main caregiver in our first years of life provides a model for future relationships
• The continuity hypothesis proposes that the type of attachment we have in infancy, will remain constant throughout our lives and characterise our future relationships
• Our internal working model consists of stable, consistent beliefs about: oneself, others and relationships

Question 30

The influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships, including the role of an internal working model
-Attachment and childhood relationships

Answer 30

• According to findings of research, secure attachments in infancy, leads to the following characteristics in childhood: closer friendships with peers, greater emotional and social competence in adolescence
• In contrast, insecurely attached infants have later friendship difficulties, with insecure-avoidant children more likely to be bullied, by insecure-resistant children

Question 31

The influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships, including the role of an internal working model
-Attachment and adult relationships

Answer 31

-Ainsworth’s research with the Strange Situation established different types of attachment that infants can develop.
-Our attachment types in infancy, can create an attachment style in adulthood
Secure= 56% in adult relationships
Insecure-avoidant=25% in adult relationships
Insecure-resistant=19% in adult relationships

Question 32

The role of the father - Research Evidence
-Field + McCallum and Golombok

Answer 32

-Filed found that when fathers have the main caregiver role, they adopt behaviours more typical of mothers, therefore the key to attachment is the level of responsiveness, not the gender of the parent
-McCallum and Golombok found that children growing up in single or same sex families didn’t develop differently from those in two parent families -> evidence undermines the ideas of fathers having distinct roles

Question 33

Theory of attachment - Research Evidence
-Bowlby’s monotropic theory

Answer 33

-Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment suggests attachment is important for a child’s survival
-Attachment behaviours in both babies and their caregivers have evolved through natural selection
-This means infants are biologically programmed with innate behaviours that ensure that attachment occurs

Question 34

Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation - Research Evidence
-The 44 Juvenile Thieves

Answer 34

-The main aim was to investigate the long-term effects of maternal deprivation
-88 children were involved which attended a ‘clinic’
-Group 1 -> Thief group -> 31 boys and 13 girls in the ‘theft’ group were referred to him because of their stealing
-Group 2 -> Control group -> 34 boys and 10 girls were referred to him because of emotional problems
-The 2 groups were matched for age and IQ
-The children and their parents were interviewed by a psychiatrist and there was a social worker to focus on the individuals’ early life experiences
-14 children from the theft group were identified as affectionless psychopaths, where 12 of those had experienced prolonged separation of more than 6 months from their mothers in their first 2 years of life

Question 35

The Role of the Father
-Research Evidence

Answer 35

-Hrdy (1997) -> Investigated the sensitivity of fathers. The study suggests that fathers are less able than mothers to detect low levels of infant distress, which suggests males as less suitable as primary caregivers
-Geiger (1996) -> Found that fathers play a different roles to mothers. Geiger showed that fathers’ play interactions are more exciting and pleasurable than mothers. Supports the idea that fathers are playmates rather than caregivers
-Frodi et at. (1978) found evidence to challenge the view that mothers have a greater physiological response to infant distress. The smiling infant triggered positive emotions and negligible changes in automatic arousal. The crying infant was perceived as aversive and elicited diastolic blood pressure and skill conductance increases

Question 36

The influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships
Research evidence -> Kerns (1994)

Answer 36

-Kerns found that securely attached babies tend to go on to form the best quality childhood relationships whereas insecure-attachment babies have significant relationship difficulties
-This implies support of the long lasting effects of attachment types on the internal working model

Question 37

Explanations of attachment: Learning theory
-Research evidence -> Dollard and Miller (1950)

Answer 37

-Dollar and Millard used the term secondary drive hypothesis to describe the processes of learning an attachment through operant and classical conditioning
-Secondary drive hypothesis explains how primary drives which are essential for survival, such as eating when hungry, become associated with secondary drives such as emotional closeness
-They extended the theory to explain that attachment is a two way process that the caregiver must also learn, and this occurs through negative reinforcement when the caregiver feels pleasure because the infant is no longer distressed

Question 38

Ainsworth’s Strange Situation
-Research evidence -> Takahashi (1990)

Answer 38

-Takahashi aimed to test whether the ss is a valid procedure for cultures other than American middle class, white children and mothers
-60 middle class Japanese mothers and their children were observed in the ss and all the families were middle class and raised at home
-They found: securely attached = 68%, insecure-avoidant = 0% and insecure-resistant = 32%
-However, Japanese children were very distressed when left alone. In 90% of cases, the ‘child alone’ stage was removed as the children were very distressed
-It was found there are cross-cultural variations in the way children behave when left alone and this may be a result of learnt behaviour

Question 39

Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation - Research evidence
-Genie

Answer 39

-She was 13 years old, but resembled a 6 year old due to neglect. Strapped to a potty day and night. When she was not strapped, she was put in a cage in a room 2 doors away from the family quarters. Sexually abused by her father and brother
-She could not communicate or chew and never fully recovered from her language deficits (this study supports the critical period)
-However she could recover and made some attachments, including her mother, who was not included in the abuse (suggesting attachments can be made after the critical period)