Approaches Flashcards
Origins of psychology
-Wundt and introspection
-Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) is cited as one of the founders of psychology as he created the first experimental psychology lab in Germany
-He created introspection. This was where participants were asked to reflect on their own cognitive thoughts/processes and describe them. It involved observing your own conscious thoughts or emotions
Origins of psychology
-Scientific method
-Wundt’s scientific method consisted of;
1. All behaviours as seen as being caused (determined)
2. If behaviours are determined, then it should be possible to predict how human beings would behave in different situations
-Structuralism= The study of the structure of the human mind, by breaking down behaviours into their basic elements
-The scientific method refers to the use of investigate methods that are: objective, systematic and relaible
Origins of psychology
-The emergence of psychology as a science
-Wundt’s approach to studying mental/ emotional processes relied on empiricism; meaning knowledge and abilities come from observation and experience alone
-This approach believes that all behaviour is determined and can therefore be predicted
-The Hypothetico-Deductive model= Theory -> deriving a hypothesis-> empirical testing against reality -> amending or agreeing the theory
-There are 5 features that were used to develop the other theories; falsifiable, replicable, objective, general laws and systematic
The Biological approach
-The influence of genes
-Behavioural genetics try to identify whether behaviour like intelligence, aggression, personality and mental illnesses are inherited in the same way as our physical characteristics
-Sometimes when explaining behaviour an interactionist approach should be taken, which looks at our nature (biology) and nurture (environment)
-The closer the genetic relationship, the greater the vulnerability
The Biological approach
-Biological structures and neurochemistry on behaviour
-Neurochemistry concerns all of the chemical processes that take place in the brain
-The makeup of your neurochemistry may have an effect on your behaviour. Serotonin, noradrenaline and dopamine are known to influence our behaviour
-The biological structures (neuroanatomy) involve the size and activity of the brain
-The structure and design of your brain can have an affect on behaviour, for example females have a 20.4% larger Broca’s area than men
The Biological approach
-Evolution and behaviour
-Charles Darwin suggested that all of our behaviour, in our minds and body, have been acquired through a process known as natural selection and survival of the fittest (only the fittest people/animal will survive)
-According to Darwin’s theory of evolution, natural selection ensures that only those behaviours that are adaptive will be naturally selected and passed down through generation
-Seligman suggested that there was biological preparedness to phobias on certain things (such as phobia to snakes)
The Biological approach
-Evolution and behaviour
-Charles Darwin suggested that all of our behaviour, in our minds and body, have been acquired through a process known as natural selection and survival of the fittest (only the fittest people/animal will survive)
-According to Darwin’s theory of evolution, natural selection ensures that only those behaviours that are adaptive will be naturally selected and passed down through generation
-Seligman suggested that there was biological preparedness to phobias on certain things (such as phobias)
The Biological approach
-Genotype and Phenotype
Genotype- A genetic constitution of an individual which is there unique make-up
Phenotype- The observable characteristics of an individual, such as morphological or biochemical features
Learning approaches
-Behaviourism
-The main assumption is that all behaviour is learned and we all have the capacity to learn from birth. From this viewpoint, a person is the product of their environment and born a blank state (tabula rasa)
Learning approaches
-Behaviorism (operant and classical conditioning)
Classical conditioning- Learning by association, two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal
Operant conditioning- Skinner’s theory is that the likelihood of future behaviour is determined by the consequences of past behaviour
Behaviorism
-Types of reinforcement/ reinforcers
Primary reinforcers = Occur naturally and do not need to be learned e.g the need for water, food and air
Secondary reinforcers = A stimulus that reinforces a behaviour after it has been associated with a primary reinforcer e.g giving a dog a treat when he completes a skill correctly
Positive reinforcement = Increasing the frequency of a desired behaviour by giving pleasant consequences
Negative reinforcement = Increasing the frequency of a desired behaviour by removing something unpleasant
Punishment = Decreasing the frequency of an undesired behaviour by giving unpleasant consequences
Learning approaches
-Social Learning theory
1.Imitation = Copying the behaviour of a role model without understanding the behaviour e.g. a son shouting racist abuse but not understanding what it means
2.Identification = Copying behaviours and understanding behaviours e.g. a son knowing what racist abuse is and the consequences of it
-Role model identification-a deeper level of identification
3.Modelling = This focuses on learning by observing others. It is used to uncover evolved behaviour
4.Vicarious reinforcement = This occurs when an individual observes a role model being rewarded for a behaviour. They are then motivated to imitate this behaviour in the hope of receiving a similar consequence
5.Vicarious punishment = Learning through seeing someone get punished from behaviour
Social learning theory
-Mediational processes
-Mediational processes determine the extent to which you will copy the behaviour
-They are cognitive elements
1. Attention = How much attention you have to the wanted behaviour
2. Retention = Remembering the technique of the behaviour
3. Reproduction = Physically reproducing the behaviour
4. Motivation = Motivated to do so (the wanted behaviour)
Social learning theory
-Bandura’s research
-Bandura aimed to see whether aggression could be modelled to younger children by an adult role model and whether children were more likely to imitate same-sex role models
-There were 3 rooms with 24 children in each, with 1 having an aggressive model, 1 with non-aggressive models and 1 with no model
-Children who observed the aggressive models resulted in more aggressive responses
-Boys who copy males who are physically aggressive
-Girls copied women who were more verbally aggressive
Cognitive approach
-The study of internal mental processes
-The main assumption of the approach is that all behaviour is driven by internal mental processes, and this is known as cognitive primary (all behaviours/emotions have their roots in thought (cognitive) processes)
-Inference = An educated guess about how something works, even though you can’t see it
Cognitive approach
-Theoretical and computer models to explain mental processes
-There are 2 models to explain mental processes: The information processing approach and The computer analogy
-The information processing approach = this approach believes we process information in a linear systematic way. The brain works like a computer
-The computer analogy = Human minds similar to computers complete with hardware (organic matter in the skull) and software (cognitive processes like memory)
Cognitive approach
-The role of the schema
-Schemas allow us to make sense of the world and are used to interpret and guide incoming information from all of our senses; hence they help us simplify the world and can be viewed as cognitively efficient
-Schemas = A mental/cognitive structure which contains knowledge about an object, activity, or even roles based on experience
Cognitive approach
-The emergence of cognitive neuroscience
-Cognitive neuroscientists search for the neuroanatomical, chemical and/or mechanisms that are responsible for cognitive processes
-Often cognitive neuroscientists will compare neurotypical and ‘atypical’ individuals to identify differences in brain regions
-They will do this through post-mortems, fMRI’s and EEG’s
The Psychodynamic approach
-The role of the unconscious mind
-The psychodynamic approach is motivated by unconscious motives and events that occurred in early childhood
-The role of the unconscious mind is to direct and motivate behaviour without conscious awareness. It also protects us from these distressing, painful or embarrassing material that would damage the psyche if recalled into conscious awareness
-Preconscious = Just beneath the surface. This includes memories and stored knowledge and we can access these if needed
The Psychodynamic approach
-The structure of personality (Id)
- Id (instincts)
-The ‘id’ is the ‘selfish beast’ part of the personality
-It is contained in the unconscious part of the mind, meaning we do not fully know what it desires
-Babies are often born crying for things without guilt or remorse for their crying
The Psychodynamic approach
-The structure of personality (Ego)
- Ego (reality)
-The ego is the executive of the personality
-The ego uses its cognitive abilities to manage and control the Id and balance its desires against the restrictions of reality
-If someone cuts you off in traffic, the Ego prevents you from driving off after them
The Psychodynamic approach
-The structure of personality (Superego)
- Super-ego (morality)
-The superego is the conscience and ego ideal
-The superego is a ‘relentless policemen’
-Example: When we turn 6 and start feeling guilt for the first time
The Psychodynamic approach
-Defence mechanisms
-You cannot scientifically observe defence mechanisms and they are falsifiable
-Defence mechanisms are employed by the ego to protect themselves from conflicts:
1. Displacement = Replacing your ‘inappropriate’ phobia with a socially accepted phobia
-Little Hans had a phobia of horses because he didn’t want his dad knowing his actual phobia
2. Repression = Burying unpleasant, anxious feelings, known as burying
3. Denial = The individual fails to see the reality as a way of protecting the ego. Lie to yourself that you are not in trouble
4. Regression = The temporary or long-term reversion of the ego to an earlier stage of development, rather than handling impulses actively. Example, Eva White
The Psychodynamic approach
-Psychosexual stages of development
-Freud suggested that we all went through set stages in our development, known as psychosexual stages
1. Oral stage, age 0 to 1
-Only pleasure is from being fed
-Area of personality development= Oral gratification
2. Anal stage, age 1 to 3
-Potty training and delayed gratification during this time
-Area of personality development=controlling bladder/bowel movements
3. Phallic stage, age 3 to 6
-Sub-conscious findings of genitals
-Area of personality development= Infants libido centres upon their genitalia as their erogenous zone
4. Latent stage, age 6 to 11
-Interests shift towards social interactions
-Identify with the aggressor
5. Genital stage, age 12+
-Sexual and romantic interests become directed towards one’s peers
The Humanistic approach
-Free will, self-actualisation + Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
-Humanistic psychology is an approach that emphasises the study of the whole person and see’s people as being active in their own development
-Free will= The meaning that we are ultimately in control of our own behaviour. This approach acknowledges that there are social rules, laws and morals that restrict whether we act upon our own free will
-Self-actualisation= The process where an individual reaches their full potential. You need ‘unconditional positive regard’ in order to achieve self-actualisation
-Maslow’s hierarchy of needs= The order is fixed and sequential and if the first need is not met then all of the other needs cannot be fulfilled. You work through all of the 5 needs in an attempt to self-actualise. The state of self-actualisation is not permanent and an individual can move out of state if all the 5 needs do not remain in place. The 5 stages are; physiological, safety, love/ belonging, esteem and self actualisation
The Humanistic approach
-The self, congruence and the role of conditions of worth
-The Self= Made up of the self-concept, the ideal self and the real self. The ideal self is the self you wish to be and who you are aiming towards becoming. The real self is the person you actually are
-Congruence= The degree of similarity between a person’s ideal self and their imagined real self. The greater the gap between the ideal self and the actual self, the greater the incongruence
-Conditions of worth= The conditions imposed on an individual’s character or behaviour that are considered necessary to earn positive regard from significant others. Unconditional positive regard= This means that someone has to be loved for who they are by someone else
The Humanistic approach
-Influence of the humanistic approach on counselling psychology
Person/client-centered therapy:
-Equal relationship between client and patient
-Every person has the tools to fix mental health
-Client guides the session -> develops positive self-esteem
-Therapist will have unconditioned positive regard
Comparing Approaches
-Humanistic approach = not scientific, nature, free will and has practical applications
-Cognitive approach = scientific, nurture, determinism and has practical applications
-Psychodynamic approach = not scientific, nurture, free will + determinism and has practical applications
-Biological approach = scientific, nature, determinism and has practical applications
-Behaviourism = scientific, nurture, determinism and has practical applications
-Social learning theory = scientific, nurture, determinism and has practical applications
Biological approach - Research Evidence
-Maguire et al. (2000)
-Maguire studied navigation-related structural changes in the hippocampi of taxi drivers
-Taxi drivers undergo extensive training, known as ‘The Knowledge’ and therefore make an ideal group for the study of spatial navigation
-The study involved 16 right-handed male London taxi drivers, who had been driving for more than 1.5 years. MRI scans were also done for 50 right-handed males who weren’t taxi drivers
-A correlation was found between the amount of time spent as a taxi driver and volume in the right posterior hippocampus
-The results showed that extensive practice with spatial navigation affects the hippocampus
The cognitive approach - Research Evidence
-The Temple Wisconsin Study
-Cognitions are seen to be critical in many behaviours, including mental health
-With a sample of University students, none suffering with depression, were assessed every few months for several years
-Results for the first 2 years suggest that those who were prone to negative thinking were more likely to become depressed
-17% of those with high scores on negative thinking went on to experience a period of sever depression compared to 1% of those with low scores
Psychodynamic approach - Research Evidence
-The Case of Little Hans
-The Case of Little Hans supported Freud’s theory that his fear of horses was due to the Oedipus Conflict and his unconscious had displaced his fear of his father onto horses
-This study showed how children use defence mechanisms and imitate and identify with the same sex parent during childhood. This helps back up some of Freuds claims.
Learning approach - Research evidence
-Wolpe,1958 (Treatment for phobias)
-The learning approach assumes that people have learnt phobias and as such can unlearn them using key therapies
-Many effective therapies have been developed (e.g. flooding or systematic desensitisation (SD)) that are very effective in treating phobias
-For instance SD, uses gradual exposure and deep relaxation to gradually unlearn phobias
-This has been seen to be 91% effective with specific phobias
Origins of psychology - Research evidence
-Hunter et al. (2003)
-Hunter et al. 2003 used introspection with teenagers to try and identify what makes them happy or unhappy throughout the day
-Through teenagers questioning their own thoughts they were able to identify what energies were focused on challenging tasks, they were far more upbeat
Humanistic approach - Research evidence
-Sheffield et al. (1995)
-Sheffield showed how there is a positive correlation between an individual’s level of self-actualisation and their psychological health
