AS Skill Acquisition Flashcards
1
Q
What is a skill?
A
A learned ability to bring about pre-determined results with the minimum outlay of time, energy or both
2
Q
What are the characteristics of a skill?
A
Aesthetically pleasing
Consistent
Efficient
Fluent
Accurate
Controlled
Economical
3
Q
What is an open skill?
A
A skill that is unpredictable and in an ever changing environment
4
Q
What is a sporting example of an open skill?
A
Passing in football
5
Q
What is a closed skill?
A
A skill that is predictable and in a stable environment
6
Q
What is a sporting example of a closed skill?
A
Shotputt
7
Q
What is a gross skill?
A
A skill that is performed using large muscle groups
8
Q
What is a sporting example of a gross skill?
A
Rugby tackle
9
Q
What is a fine skill?
A
A skill that uses smaller, more intricate muscle groups
10
Q
What is a sporting example of a fine skill?
A
Throwing a dart
11
Q
What is a self paced skill?
A
When a performer can control the start and speed of a skill
12
Q
What is a sporting example of a self paced skill?
A
Throwing a javelin
13
Q
What is an externally paced skill?
A
When the performer was no control over the speed and start of the skill
14
Q
What is a sporting example of an externally paced still?
A
Receiving a pass in netball
15
Q
What is a discrete skill?
A
A skill that has a clear beginning and end
16
Q
What is a sporting example of a discrete still?
A
Tennis serve
17
Q
What is a continuous skill?
A
A skill that doesn’t have a clear beginning or end
18
Q
What is a sporting example of a continuous skill?
A
Cycling
19
Q
What is a serial skill?
A
When several discrete skills are linked together in a specific order
20
Q
What is a sporting example of a serial skill?
A
Gymnastics floor routine
21
Q
What is a low organised skill?
A
A skill that is easily broken down into sub routines
22
Q
What is a sporting example of a low organised skill?
A
Swimming stroke
23
Q
What is a high organised skill?
A
A skill that isn’t easily broken down into sub routines
24
Q
What is a sporting example of a high organised skill?
A
Golf swing
25
What is a simple skill?
A skill that needs limited decisions to be made
26
What is a sporting example of a simple skill?
100m sprint
27
What is a complex skill?
A skill that needs many decisions to be made
28
What is a sporting example of a complex skill?
Dribble in hockey
29
What does transfer mean?
The effect of the learning of one skill on the learning of another
30
What are the four types of transfer?
Positive, negative, zero, bilateral
31
What is positive transfer?
When the learning of a skill aids the learning of another
32
What is a sporting example of positive transfer?
Basketball pass and netball pass
33
What is negative transfer?
When the learning of one skill hinders the learning of another
34
What is a sporting example of negative transfer?
Badminton and tennis serves
35
What is zero transfer?
When the learning of a skill has no effect on the learning of another
36
What is a sporting example of zero transfer?
Swimming arm action and foot positioning in climbing
37
What is bilateral transfer?
When a skill is transferred from one side of the body to the other
38
How do coaches ensure positive transfer?
- ensuring training is realistic
- ensuring skills are well learnt
- maintaining motivation through praise and rewards
39
What is whole practice and when is it used?
- performing the skill in its entirety
- discrete, highly organised, simple
40
What is a sporting example of whole practice?
A golf swing
41
What are the advantages of whole practices?
- create motor programmes which can be stored in long term memory
- realistic which produces positive transfer
- allows performers to to get kinaesthesias which promotes fluency and consistency
42
What are the disadvantages of whole practice?
- fatigue easily
- may not be able to cope with the demands of the task
43
What is whole-part-whole practice and when is it used?
- doing the skill as a whole, then breaking it down then putting it back together again
- for complex, highly organised skills
44
What is a sporting example of whole-part-whole practice?
A volleyball player doing a spike and breaking it into parts and then putting it back together again
45
What are the positives of whole-part-whole practice?
- provide motivation
- corrects errors immediately
- allows selected part to be successfully integrated into the entire skill
46
What are the disadvantages of whole-part-whole practice?
- at risk of negative transfer
- coaches must integrate selected part to whole skill immediately
- time consuming
47
What is progressive part practice and when is it used?
- chaining parts of a skill together
- used for serial, low organised skills
48
What is a sporting example of progressive part practice?
A dance routine
49
What are the advantages of progressive part practice?
- can focus on one aspect of task at a time
- allows rest periods
- provides motivation and improved confidence
50
What are the disadvantages of progressive part practice?
- time consuming
- neglect the kinaesthesis of the task
- danger of negative transfer
51
What are the types of practice?
Massed, distributed, varied and mental
52
What is massed practice and when is it used?
- continuous practice with no rests
- used for discrete, simple and closed sills
53
What is a sporting example of massed practice?
A basketball player practicing free throws
54
What are the positives of massed practice?
- promotes fitness
- creates habits
- allows consistency
55
What are the negatives of massed practice?
- fatigue
- may create boredom and plateau
- risk of negative transfer as the practice isn’t realistic
56
What is distributed practice and when is it used?
- use of rest intervals
- for continuous open skills
57
What are the positives of distributed practice?
- allows time for recuperation
- allows controlled progress which ensures positive transfer
- offers motivation
58
What are the negatives of distributed practice?
- time consuming
- not suitable for autonomous performers
59
What is varied practice and when is it used?
- changing the practice method/type
- for open, externally paced and continuous skills
60
What are the positives of varied practice?
- allows adaptations
- prevents plateau
- increased motivation
61
What are the negatives of varied practice?
- time consuming
- risk of negative transfer
62
What is mental practice?
- used in addition to physical practice
- the performers go through the skill in their mind before performing it
- internal and external
63
When is mental practice used?
Usually used as part of a warm up
64
What are the benefits of mental practice?
- improves confidence and lowers anxiety
- improves decision making and reaction time
- maintains the muscle/cognitive memory of a skill even during injury
65
How to coach mental practice?
- for beginners, can be used in small chunks focusing on the key parts of the skills to lower arousal and anxiety and build confidence
- for advanced performers, it can be used potentially for a whole session in prep for a major event to improve reaction time and increasing focus
- should always be used in conjunction with physical practice
66
What are the three stages of learning?
Cognitive, associative and autonomous
67
What are the characteristics of a cognitive learner?
- extrinsic positive feedback
- jerky
- inaccurate
- not aesthetically pleasing
- no motor programme
68
What are the characteristics of an associative learner?
- can start to use intrinsic feedback and negative feedback
- more fluent
- more accurate
- more aesthetically pleasing
69
What are the characteristics of an autonomous learner?
- lots of intrinsic and negative feedback
- very fluent
- little to no mistakes
- very aesthetically pleasing
- motor programme formed
70
What stages use motor programmes?
In the associative stage motor programmes are forming and are fully formed in the autonomous stage
71
What is feedback?
Information received to amend performance and make improvements
72
What is positive feedback?
When the coach offers praise and rewards to the performer and often offers motivation
73
What is negative feedback?
When the coach criticises the performer and tells them what they do wrong to eliminate bad habits
74
What is extrinsic feedback?
Feedback derived from an outside source such as a coach
75
What is intrinsic feedback?
Feedback from within
76
What is knowledge of results?
Feedback based on whether the skill was successful or not
77
What is knowledge of performance?
Feedback based on why the skill was or wasn’t successful
78
What is the memory tool for types of feedback?
Perhaps Not Every Person Is Realistic
79
What types of feedback is best suited to a cognitive learner?
Positive and extrinsic feedback
80
What types of feedback are best suited to an associative learner?
Intrinsic, extrinsic and negative
81
What type of feedback is best suited for an autonomous learner?
Intrinsic and negative feedback
82
What is the learning curve?
A visual representation of what happens when a closed skill is repeated
83
What is stage 1 of the learning curve?
The rate of learning is slow and performance level is poor due to being in the cognitive stage
84
What is stage 2 of the learning curve?
Rapid acceleration in the rate of learning as performer begins to master the task and be successful
85
What is stage 3 of the learning curve?
There is no improvement in the performance (plateau)
86
What is stage 4 of the learning curve?
Performance may decrease due to fatigue
87
What is a learning plateau?
A period of time when performer isn’t improving
88
What are the causes of the learning plateau?
- lack of motivation
- boredom
- poor coaching
- limit of ability
- target too low
- fatigue
89
What is the memory tool for causes of learning plateau?
Many Bees Can Look Towards Flowers
90
What can coaches do when low targets are causing a plateau?
Extend the task to get new targets
91
What is the solution to poor coaching causing a plateau?
Get a new coach
92
What is the solution to a lack of motivation causing a plateau?
The coach should offer more praise and positive reinforcement
93
What is the solution to fatigue causing a learning plateau?
Allow rest periods
94
What is the solution to boredom causing a plateau?
Add variety to the task
95
What is visual guidance?
Demonstrations to create a mental image usually by a coach or a peer
96
What are the advantages of visual guidance?
- create a mental image
- highlights weaknesses
- effective when paired with verbal guidance
97
What are the disadvantages of visual guidance?
- demonstrations must be accurate
- overload
98
What is verbal guidance?
An explanation of the task
99
What are the advantages of verbal guidance?
- help to build a mental image
- can be used with visual guidance
- can use lots of detail
100
What are the disadvantages of verbal guidance?
- overload
- performers may lose concentration
- language must be understandable
101
What is manual guidance?
Physical support for the performer
102
What are the advantages of manual guidance?
- safety
- kinaesthetic feel
- improve confidence
- reduced fear and anxiety
103
What are the disadvantages of manual guidance?
- detrimental if over used
- over reliance can lead to bad habits
- lose confidence when without help
104
What is mechanical guidance?
Use of device and tech to help performance
105
What are the advantages of mechanical guidance?
- builds confidence
- eliminates danger
- kinaesthetic feel
- good for disabled performers
106
What are the disadvantages of mechanical guidance?
- can interfere with task if overused
- can depend on it too much
- may lose motivation
107
What is operant conditioning?
The use of reinforcement to link correct responses to a stimulus
108
What are the main characteristics of operant conditioning?
- based on trial and error
- coach can manipulate environment
- shapes behaviour
109
What is an S-R bond?
Stimulus response bond
110
What is the aim of the S-R bond?
To link the appropriate response to the stimulus so the correct action can be learned
111
What is positive reinforcement?
Giving a pleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of the correct response happening again
112
What is an example of positive reinforcement?
A certificate
113
What affect does positive reinforcement on the S-R bond?
It strengthens the correct one
114
What is negative reinforcement?
Removing a negative stimulus when the performer does it right to increase the likelihood of the correct behaviour occurring again
115
What is an example of negative reinforcement?
A coach no longer giving the performer negative feedback
116
What effect does negative reinforcement have on the S-R bond?
It strengthens the correct one
117
What is punishment?
Giving an unpleasant stimulus to prevent the incorrect actions happening again
118
What is an example of punishment?
Giving a red card for a foul in football
119
What effect does punishment have on the S-R bond?
It weakens the wrong one
120
What does the observational learning model suggest?
We learn all behaviours by watching and copying others
121
How can coaches use observational learning to their advantage?
Using strategies such as demonstrations using role models to show the correct skills during practice to ensure they are correctly copied
122
What are learners most likely to copy according to observational learning?
– role models
– people they identify with (same age/gender etc)
– actions that are successful
– actions that are reinforced
123
What are the 4 stages to observational learning?
Attention, retention, motor production and motivation
124
What is the attention stage of observational learning?
- learners must watch the demonstration and listen to key cues
- the model use be attractive and accurate
125
What is the retention stage of observational learning?
- the ability to remember the demonstration
- the demo can be repeated help make a clear mental image
- the time between demonstration and practice must be short
126
What is the motor production stage of observational learning?
- performer must be physically and mentally able to reproduce the skill
- important that the skill is within the ability of the learner
127
What is the motivation stage of observational learning?
- performer must have a drive to copy the demonstration
- this is ensured by offering praise and rewards
128
What is social development theory/ constructivism?
Skills are learnt from coaches (more knowledgable other) who gives direct examples and offers advice on values and actions e.g. effort and lifestyle
129
What is the first stage of constructivism?
Inter psychological learning
130
What is inter psychological learning?
When the learner uses MKO to get advice, feedback and knowledge
131
What is the second stage of constructivism?
Intra psychological learning
132
What is intra psychological learning?
Learning from the values you learnt from MKO and assessing their own level of performance
133
What is the zone of proximal development?
An assessment of what a performer needs to do to learn the next skill
134
What are the 3 stages of the zone of proximal development?
- What can I do alone? (zone of achieved development)
- What can I do with help?
- What can I not do yet?
135
What is insight learning?
A theory that allows performers to be independent and use their own knowledge to solve a problem during the sport while focusing on the whole task
136
What is good about insight learning?
- better understanding of the skill
- develops independent learners
- improves problem solving
- provides intrinsic motivation
137
What is a definition of information processing?
Taking account for the sporting environment and making decisions prior to execution
138
What is the basic information processing model?
Input -> Decision making -> Output
139
What is input?
Use of the senses to pick information up from the display
140
What is decision making?
Based on the input information the relevant motor programme is retrieved using selective attention and the memory systems
141
What is output?
Network of nerves that is responsible for delivering impulses to relevant muscles
142
What is a receptor system?
The 5 senses picking up information from the display
143
What are the 5 sense?
Sight, auditory, touch, balance and kinesthesis
144
What is the sense of sight?
Seeing stimuli in the display such as the flight of a ball
145
What is the auditory sense?
Hearing stimuli such as the calls of team mates
146
What is the sense of touch?
The feeling of stimuli such as the grip of the ball
147
What is the sense of balance?
A sense of control such as a gymnast on a beam
148
What is the sense of kinesthesis?
Sense from within that relays information such as muscle tension and body position
149
What senses are internal?
Touch, balance and kinesthesis
150
What sense are external?
Sight and auditory
151
What is selective attention?
A filtering process where the irrelevant stimuli are removed and the relevant ones are kept
152
How do you develop selective attention?
Experience, making a distraction stimulus more intense (English rugby players training with Welsh national anthem), mental practice and motivation
153
What are the benefits of selective attention?
- improved reaction time
- improves chance of making correct decision
- helps decision making process
154
What is the order of Whitings information processing model?
Input -> receptor systems -> Perceptual mechanism -> Translatory mechanism -> Effector mechanism -> Output -> Feedback
155
What are the 3 aspects of the perceptual mechanism?
Detection, comparison and recognition
156
What is detection in the perceptual mechanism?
Performer picking up relevant cues from display using selective attention
157
What is the comparison stage in the perceptual mechanism?
Matching the input data to motor programmes in the memory systems
158
What is the recognition stage of the perceptual mechanism?
Identifying an appropriate response
159
What is the translatory mechanism?
Using information from perceptual stage the correct motor programme is identified and retrieved
160
What is the effector mechanism?
The motor programme chosen determines the nerve impulses sent to appropriate muscles to contract and begin the response
161
How is feedback used in Whiting’s model?
The success or failures of the outcome are stored and used for the next time
162
What is the memory system?
An integral part of processing information that is a series of memory stores that stores and transfers information
163
What are the key components of the Working Memory Model?
- central executive
- phonological loop
- episodic buffer
- visuospatial sketchpad
- long term memory
164
What is the phonological loop?
- processes auditory information such as call from team mates
- consists of the phonological store and articulatory system that produce a memory trace (initial mental idea of skill)
- memory trace sent to LTM
165
What is the visuospatial sketchpad?
- processes visual and spatial information
- consists of visual cache and inner scribe
166
What is the episodic buffer?
- coordinate information from phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad
- starting point for motor programmes
167
How do the working memory and long term memory interact?
WM picks up relevant information from display and creates a memory trace that is sent to LTM and compared to motor programmes
168
What are the features of the working memory?
- capacity of 7 items
- duration of 30 seconds
169
What are the features of the long term memory?
- permanent duration
- large capacity
170
How do you ensure effective storage in the LTM?
- rewards (motivation)
- association with emotions/past experiences
- mental practise
- chunking (prevent overload)
- focus (selective attention)
- rehearsal (ensures motor programmes)
- chaining (linking moves to recall them as a sequence)
171
What is the memory tool to remember strategies to effectively store information in the LTM?
Males And Females Can Run Charity Races
(mental practise, association, focus, chunking, rewards, chaining, rehearsal)
172
What is schema theory?
Performers store schemas as generalised motor programmes that can be adapted and retrieved based on on display
173
What are the parameters of a schema?
The ways in which you adapt a motor programme to ensure the schema is effective
174
What are the 2 stages in the parameters of a schema?
Recall schema and Recognition schema
175
What are the 2 stages of recall schemas?
Initial conditions and response specifications
176
What is a recall schema?
Stores information about and initiates movement
177
What are the initial conditions in the recall schema?
Gathering information about whether they have been in that position before (where am I?)
178
What are the response specifications of the recall schema?
Based on the initial conditions the performer makes a decision on what movement to do (what is expected?)
179
What are the 2 stages of a recognition schema?
Sensory consequences and Response outcomes
180
What are the sensory consequences in the recognition schema?
Gathering information about the movement and using kinesthesis getting intrinsic feedback (how did it look/feel?)
181
What is the response outcome of the recognition schema?
Gathering information about the result of the movement and whether it was successful (did it work?)
182
How do you effectively develop schemas?
- ensure varied practice
- ensure transferable skill developed
- constant feedback
- lots of praise and positive reinforcement
- ensure a large range of skills are well learnt
183
What is response time?
Total time from onset of stimulus to end of movement
Reaction time + movement time
184
What is movement time?
Time take from onset of movement to finishing the task
185
What is reaction time?
Time from onset of stimulus to start of movement
186
What is simple reaction time?
Time taken to react when there is one specific response to one stimulus
187
What is choice reaction time?
Time taken to react when there is numerous stimuli to react to
188
What is Hick’s Law?
The more choices you have the longer reaction time will be but isn’t linear as the environment gets more familiar so there are less new choices
189
What is the single channel hypothesis?
Stimuli can only be processed one at a time is following stimuli must wait which increases reaction time
190
What is the psychological refractory period?
The delay that occurs as a second stimulus arrives while we are processing the first one which can be seen as freezing
191
What is anticipation?
When the performer prejudges a stimulus
192
What is temporal anticipation?
Prejudging when a stimulus will happen
193
What is spatial anticipation?
Prejudging where and what the stimulus will be
194
What is the effect of correct anticipation?
Better reaction time as information processing is sped up
195
How do you improve response time?
- mental practice (actions can be predicted)
- specify training (train expected stimuli)
- increasing focus (asking it clear what are the relevant stimuli)
- improving fitness (improves movement time)
- research (on opposition to help anticipation)
196
What is recognition schema?
Controls and evaluates movement
