A2 Sport Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
What is social facilitation?
A
The positive influence of the presence of others on performance
2
Q
What is social inhibition?
A
The negative influence others have on performance
3
Q
Who came up with the social facilitation model?
A
Zajonc
4
Q
Who are the 4 types of others who can b present in Zajonc’s model?
A
- audience
- co-actors
- competitive co-actors
- social reinforcers
5
Q
What is an audience in Zajonc’s model?
A
- a passive other
- those watching but not interacting with the performer
- cause pressure
6
Q
What is a co-actor in Zajonc’s model?
A
- passive other
- those performing the same task but not in direct competition with them
7
Q
What is an example of a co-actor in Zajonc’s model?
A
Another badminton player on another court
8
Q
What is a competitive co-actor in Zajonc’s model?
A
- interactive other
- those in direct competition with the performer
9
Q
What is an example of a competitive co-actor in Zajonc’s model?
A
A member of the opposing football team
10
Q
What are social reinforcers in Zajonc’s model?
A
- interactive others
- those watching with a direct influence on the performer
11
Q
What is an example of a social reinforcer in Zajonc’s model?
A
Coach/parent/fans etc
12
Q
How do passive others lead to social facilitation?
A
- passive others increase arousal/drive
- increases the likelihood of the dominant response occurring
- if it is a complex skill/a novice inhibition occurs
13
Q
How do passive others lead to social facilitation?
A
– passive others increase arousal/drive
– increases the likelihood of the dominant response occurring
– if the skill is simple/ an expert social facilitation happens
14
Q
How does social facilitation link to arousal?
A
- the presence of passive others means that performers struggle to concentrate on the task to them
– leading to conflict which increases arousal
15
Q
How does social facilitation affect a cognitive learner?
A
– they will be anxious and over aroused when being watched
– causing poor performance and social inhibition
16
Q
How does social facilitation affect on autonomous learner?
A
- motivated and encouraged when being watched
- improved performance and social facilitation
17
Q
What effect does simple skills have on social facilitation?
A
Enhances performance because little thought is needed to do them so they aren’t distracted
18
Q
How does complex skills affect social facilitation?
A
- has a negative effect on performance
- due to inability to concentrate
- increased arousal
19
Q
How does drive theory link to social facilitation?
A
- for autonomous learners the dominant response is more likely to occur which is the correct response so they experience social facilitation
- for cognitive learners the dominant response is more likely to occur which is the incorrect response so they experience social inhibition
20
Q
What is evaluation apprehension?
A
The perceived fear of being judged
21
Q
What is suggested by the evaluation apprehension theory?
A
It’s not the presence of people that affects our performance but rather whether we think the people watching are assessing our performance
22
Q
What are 4 ways of preventing social inhibition?
A
- getting players familiar with playing in front of a crowd
- gradually introducing evaluation
- improving focus and selective attention
- reduce the importance of an event
23
Q
What characteristics does a team have?
A
- a collective identity
- interaction
- communication
- shared goal/purpose
24
Q
What does it mean when a group has a collective identity and an example?
A
They can be easily identified and increases the sene of belonging which increases pride and motivation e.g. team kits
25
What does it mean when a group interacts and an example?
The members operate in their own roles successfully and link the role with others showing they work together e.g. zone formation in basketball
26
What does it mean when a group communicates and an example?
It assists interaction to help the clarity of messages and understanding, it ca be verbal or non-verbal e.g. football players shouting to make others know they are open
27
What does it mean when a group has a shared goal or purpose and an example?
The aim of the team is shared usually linking to achieving success e.g. winning the league
28
What is meant by group formation?
The stages a group goes through which can fail at any stages
29
Who proposed the group formation model?
Tuckman
30
What are the stages in Tuckman’s group formation model?
Forming, storming, norming and performing
31
What is the forming stage of Tuckman’s model?
- when the group comes together and get to know eachother
- they begin to understand the task and begin to tackle it
- respect eachother but don’t work together
32
What is the storming stage of Tuckman’s model?
- period of conflict
- members try to establish role in the group
- cliques/alliances form
33
What is the norming stage of Tuckman’s model?
- group starts to agree and accept common rules, goals values and roles
- group is more stable as trust is developed
34
What is the performing stage of Tuckman’s model?
- group works together to achieve shared goals
- relationships an strategies well established
- clear leaders that consult everyone
35
What is the later added mourning stage of Tuckman’s model’s?
- when the team breaks up
- task has been completed
36
What is group cohesion?
The tendency of the group to stay together and work together to achieve their goals
37
What increases the likelihood of group cohesion?
The team sharing the same goal
38
Who came up with the theory behind group cohesion?
Carron
39
What are antecedents?
Something that must be in place for something else to happen
40
What is meant by Carron’s antecedents?
Things that must be in place before the group can be cohesive
41
What are Carron’s antecedents?
- personal factors
- environmental factors
- leadership-based factors
- team-based factors
42
What is meant by the antecedent of personal factors?
Things such as gender, goals etc that are either similar or dissimilar
43
What is meant by the antecedent environmental factors?
Things in the environment such as group size, age geography etc
44
What is meant by the antecedent leadership based factors?
Leadership behaviour/style and the leader-team relationships
45
What is meant by the antecedent team-based factors?
Factors such as focus, desire for success, ability etc
46
What 2 factors affect group performance?
Cooperation and coordination
47
What is cooperation in aiding group performance?
Things such as helping each other to achieve goals
48
What is coordination in helping group performance?
Things such as tactics, timing and team awareness
49
What are the 2 different types of groups?
Interactive and coactive
50
What is an interactive group and an example? How does it link to coordination and cooperation?
Where team mates must work together directly to achieve success e.g. football, coordination and cooperation are essential
51
What is a coactive group and an example?
Team mates try to achieve the same goal but there is little interaction e.g. relay race
52
What are the 2 factors affecting group cohesion?
- attractiveness of the group
- benefits they can gain from being part of the group
53
How does attractiveness of the group affect cohesion?
The more members enjoy being part of the group and they feel they fit in the more the team enjoys working together
54
How does the benefits individuals gain from being part of the group affect group cohesion?
If the individual feels they can gain lots and the goals fit with their personal goals then the team is more cohesive
55
What are the 2 types of cohesion?
Task and social cohesion
56
What is task cohesion?
The willingness of the team to work together to achieve a shared goal despite individual differences
57
What is social cohesion?
The tendency of a group to work together as they get on well and enjoy socialising together
58
What is the relationship between cohesion and performance?
- cohesion is important for success which in turn leads to better cohesion
- task cohesion is more important than social cohesion
59
What is group effectiveness?
An effective group uses the strengths of each individual for the benefit of the team
60
Who proposed the model of group effectiveness?
Steiner
61
What is Steiner’s model of group effectiveness?
Actual productivity = potential productivity - losses due to faulty processes
62
In Steiner’s model, what are faulty processes?
Coordination and motivation problems
63
What are coordination problems in Steiner’s model and what effect does it have on group performance?
- occurs when there should be a high level of interactions but some members not doing their part or not connecting their play
- negative effect on performance
64
What are motivation problems in Steiner’s model and what effect does it have on performance?
- individuals work less hard inn a group than on their own
- due to the Ringlemann effect or social loafing
- negative effect on performance
65
What is the Ringlemann effect?
Individual efforts decrease as group size increases due to motivational losses
66
What is social loafing?
Individual efforts decrease as group size increases as individuals feel efforts are less noticeable and necessary
67
What are 2 ways to overcome coordination losses?
- use drills that develop interactive play e.g. set plays and drills
- ensure all members are clear about roles in the group and how it relates to others
68
What are 4 ways to overcome motivational losses?
- recognise individual contribution e.g. performance analysis
- develop intrinsic and extrinsic motivation through rewards
- bring awareness to performers of when social loafing may occur
- develop task cohesion by ensuring everyone is clear about team objective
69
What is self confidence?
A persons belief in their own ability to achieve success in general
70
What are the 2 types of confidence?
Trait and state
71
What is trait confidence?
An innate level of confidence that is consistent in most situations
72
What is state confidence?
Confidence in specific situations that can vary over different situations
73
Who came up with the model of self confidence?
Vealy
74
What is Vealy’s model of self confidence?
- starts with an objective sport situation
- individual has SC-trait and competitive orientation
- these impact SC-state
- this leads to the performance of a skill and the perceived outcome which feeds back into SC-trait and competitive orientation
75
What is objective sports situation in Vealy’s model?
A specific skill e.g. shooting in netball
76
What is SC-trait in Vealy’s model?
An innate, stable level of self confidence in most situations
77
What is competitive orientation in Vealy’s model?
The level of competitiveness the individual has in that situation
78
What is SC-state in Vealy’s model?
The level of confidence an individual has in a specific sporting situation
79
What is the subjective outcomes in Vealy’s model?
How the performer interprets their performance which affects future SC-trait and competitive orientation
80
What is self efficacy?
The belief in the individuals ability to succeed in a specific sporting situation
81
What are 6 ways in which a high level of self efficacy improves performance?
- increases positive attitude
- increased motivation
- reduced NAF
- reduced anxiety
- enhance feel good factor
- can help performers reach optimal arousal
82
According to Bandura, what are the 4 factors that affect self efficacy?
- performance accomplishments
- vicarious experience
- verbal persuasion
- emotional arousal
83
How does performance accomplishments affect self efficacy?
- most important factor
- repeated success previously leads to positive expectations and increased motivation so further successes happen
84
How does vicarious experiences affect self efficacy?
- performers gain confidence from seeing others succeed
- most effective with the model is of a similar ability
85
How does verbal persuasion affect self efficacy?
If others show that they have confidence in you with reasoning you are more likely to have self efficacy
86
How does emotional arousal affect self efficacy?
- least important factor
- physiological symptoms of arousal e.g. anxiety must be seen positively to improve self efficacy
87
What are 6 strategies to overcome self efficacy?
- goals set should be realistic
- goals should be performance not outcome goals
- ensure performers are aware of previous accomplishments
- positive vicarious experiences
- imagery/visualisation
- encourage performers to see arousal symptoms as positive
88
What are 4 factors that reduce self efficacy?
- consistent failure
- goals are too outcome orientated
- feedback is too negative
- external rewards are limited to best performers only
89
What are 4 advantages of playing at home?
- increases player confidence and motivation
- increases functional assertiveness behaviour making them more aggressive increasing the likelihood of winning
- increases the likelihood of the dominant response occurring
- home supporters can have a negative effect on the opposition
90
What are the factors affecting whether the home team is at an advantage?
- size of the home crowd
- hostility of the home crowd
- proximity of the crowd to the pitch
- distance the away team has travelled
91
What are 4 reasons why playing at home may be a disadvantage?
- the more important the game is the choke effect is likely to happen due to the pressure leading to social inhibition
- a large empty stadium with crowd far away will reduce the influence on the players
- players may be more self conscious
- evaluation apprehension may increase anxiety
92
What is personality?
The individual, unique characteristics of a person
93
What are the characteristics of personality?
- psychological and behavioural characteristics
- how stables ad enduring those characteristics are
- factors that determine the individuals patterns of behaviour
94
What are the 3 approaches to explaining personality?
- trait theory
- social learning theory
- interactionist approach
95
What is trait theory?
- born with innate personality characteristics (nature)
- these characteristics are stable enduring and consistent
96
What is the social learning theory?
- personality characteristics are learned from the environment and experiences (nurture)
- observe-identify-reinforce-copy
- learning through socialisation (more likely to repeat own and vicarious successful experiences)
97
What is the interactionist approach?
Born with certain personality characteristics that can be modified due to experiences
98
What is Lewis’s formula of the interactionist approach?
- Best Friends in PE
- B = f(PE)
- behaviour is a function of personality and the environment
99
What is a sporting example of Lewin’s formula?
A gymnast may be introverted but more extroverted infront of judges
100
What is Hollanders model of the interactionist approach?
- psychological core (beliefs , values and attitudes that are fairly permanent)
- typical responses (how individuals usually respond to situations)
- role related behaviour (how individuals respond in specific situations that may not be typical)
101
What effects will being an extrovert have on sports choice and performance?
- team sports
- more aggressive
- perform better at higher levels of arousal
- impatient
102
What effects will being an introvert have on sports choice and performance?
- individual sports
- self motivated
- perform better at lower arousal levels
- perform intricate skills
103
What are 4 ways we can use personality to predict behaviour to improve performance?
- predict an individuals response to a situation and remove them from it if necessary
- can offer advice and feedback to alter their behaviour
- create game like scenarios to help them cope with pressure
- give individualised feedback and training
104
What is an attitude?
A complex mix of feelings, beliefs and values that causes someone to behave a certain way towards something
105
What is an attitude object?
A person/event/behaviour towards which a person has an attitude
106
What is a prejudice?
A performed opinion of someone based on irrational stereotypical views
107
What are social norms?
A rule or standard of behaviour that is enforced by society
108
Why do we try to develop positive attitudes?
- positive attitudes lead to positive/accepted behaviours
- showing behaviours that are socially valued e.g. sportsmanship
109
What are the 5 factors affecting attitude formation?
- pervious experiences
- peers
- conditioning
- socialisation
- familiarity
110
How do previous experience affect attitude formation?
- success creates positive emotions which forms a positive attitude
- failure creates negative emotions which forms a negative attitude
111
How do peers affect attitude formation?
- if people around you have a positive attitude towards something you are more likely to have a positive attitude towards something
- if people around you have a negative attitude towards something you are more likely to have a negative attitude towards something
112
How does conditioning affect attitude formation?
Positive reinforcement will encourage a positive attitude
113
How does socialisation affect attitude formation?
Observing the attitudes of role models and copying that
114
How does familiarity affect attitude formation?
The more a person experiences an attitude object the more likely they are to have a positive attitude towards it
115
What is the triadic model and its components?
- components of an attitude
- cognitive
- affective
- behavioural
116
What is the cognitive component?
What we know and believe about the attitude object
117
What is the affective component?
How we feel about the attitude object
118
What is the behavioural component?
How we actually act towards the attitude object
119
Does the triadic model help predict behaviour?
No because even if someone has a positive cognitive and affective component, the behavioural may not match
120
What are some general methods to changing negative attitudes?
- ensuring positive successful experiences
- praising positive attitudes/behaviour
- punishing negative behaviour
- using positive role models
121
What are the 2 other methods to changing negative attitudes?
- persuasive communication
- cognitive dissonance
122
What is persuasive communication?
- the persuader must have a higher status, be if a similar background and be credible
- the message must be accurate, clear and appeal to the listener
- the receiver must be willing to change their attitude
123
What is cognitive dissonance?
When individuals have consonance between their components of attitudes that forms a negative attitude, coaches must try and create cognitive dissonance to make the individual more willing to change their attitude
124
What is arousal?
General state of preparedness for activity
125
What are characteristics of underarousal?
- lethargic
- bored
- fatigued
126
What are characteristics of overarousal?
- anxiety
- loss of concentration
- fear/anger
- aggression
127
What are characteristics of optimal arousal?
- heart and breathing rate sufficiently elevated
- emotion levels are at the optimum level
- reaction times are fastest
- able to block out irrelevant stimuli without attentional narrowing
128
What is attentional narrowing?
Focusing on too narrow a range of information and so missing important cues
129
What are 4 somatic signs of arousal?
- increased heart rate
- sweating
- muscle tension
- nausea
130
What are 3 positive effects of cognitive arousal?
- concentration
- selective attention
- decreased reaction time
131
What are 4 negative effects of cognitive arousal?
- anxiety
- negative self talk
- increased reaction time
- difficulty sleeping
132
What are the 3 arousal theories?
- drive theory
- inverted U theory
- catastrophe theory
133
What is drive theory?
- as arousal increases so does the quality of performance/likelihood of the dominant response occurring
- performance = habit strength x drive
134
How does drive theory affect an expert?
The dominant response is likely to be correct so performance improves
135
How does drive theory affect a cognitive learner?
The dominant response is likely to be incorrect so performance decreases
136
What is the inverted U theory?
Performance increases as arousal increases until overarousal is reached and performance decreases
137
How do optimum arousal levels differ for cognitive and autonomous learners?
- for a cognitive learner optimum arousal is lower
- for an autonomous learner optimum arousal is higher
138
How does optimum arousal vary for fine and gross skills?
- gross = higher as they require more effort
- fine = lower as they need lots of concentration
139
How does optimum arousal vary for simple and complex skills?
- simple = higher as they are habitual
- complex = lower as there are lots of decisions to be made accurately
140
How does optimum arousal vary for introverts and extroverts?
- introverts = lower as they have naturally higher levels so only a small increase is needed to reach optimum
- extroverts = higher as they need a large increase to reach optimum
141
What is the catastrophe theory?
Performance increases as arousal increases until over arousal when there is a rapid drop in performance which can be recovered using calming techniques
142
According to catastrophe theory when does the ‘catastrophe occur’?
When somatic and cognitive arousal are high
143
What is Hanin’s zone of optimal functioning?
The area between the upper and lower levels of arousal where optimal performance takes place, i is unique to each person
144
What are the effects of being in the zone of optimal performance takes arousal?
- heart and breathing rate sufficiently elevated
- emotion levels are optimum
- reaction times are fastest
- can blockout irrelevant stimuli without attentional narrowing
- likely to lead to peak flow experience
145
What is the peak flow experience?
Ultimate intrinsic experience where individuals are alert to important factors only so performance is effortless and have high levels of self confidence
146
What are 4 factors associated with the peak flow experience?
- clear goals
- concentration on task
- kinesthesis
- sense of control
147
What are 4 ways in which performers try to achieve the peak flow experience?
- positive attitude
- successful goal setting
- high motivation levels
- high confidence
148
What are the factors inhibiting achieving the peak flow experience?
- high pressure
- low confidence
- fatigue
- failure to reach optimum arousal
149
What is anxiety?
Negative aspect of stress where individuals feel worried of the possibility of failure
150
What is stress?
Perceived imbalance between demands of the task and the individuals ability to
151
What are 4 characteristics of cognitive anxiety?
- negative self talk
- difficulty sleeping
- inability to concentrate
- increased reaction times
152
What are 4 characteristics of somatic anxiety?
- sweating
- muscle tension
- nausea
- increased blood pressure
153
What is competitive state anxiety?
Anxiety felt in particular sporting situations that varies during performance
154
What is a sporting example of competitive state anxiety?
A footballer may feel anxious when taking a penalty but not the rest of the game
155
What is trait anxiety?
An enduring personality trait where individuals feel anxiety in all situations
156
What are 4 causes of anxiety?
- task importance
- fear of failure
- injury
- lack of self confidence
157
How does trait anxiety affect arousal?
- people with high trait anxiety achieve optimal arousal with low arousal levels
- people with low trait anxiety achieve optimal arousal with high arousal levels
158
What are the 3 ways in which you can measure anxiety?
- physiological measures
- observations
- questionnaires
159
What is physiological measures as a way of measuring anxiety?
When the performer is wired up to devices such as an ECG to measure somatic effects of anxiety
160
What are 2 advantages of physiological measures of anxiety?
- factual so comparisons can be made
- can be used during training e.g. smart watch measuring heart rate
161
What are 4 disadvantages of physiological measures of anxiety?
- expensive
- exercise produces same physiological response
- being wired up may make you anxious
- need training on how to use efficiently
162
What are observations as a way of measuring anxiety?
Trained observers looking for symptoms of changes in anxiety such as increased bodily movement and agitation
163
What is an advantage of observations as a way of measuring anxiety?
- it takes place in a real life situation
164
What are 4 disadvantages of observations as a way of measuring anxiety?
- behaviour may be artificial if they know they’re being observed
- subjective judgement
- need several observers
- observers must be trained
165
What are the 2 questionnaires that measure anxiety?
SCAT (sport competitive anxiety test) and CSAI-2 (competitive state anxiety inventory)
166
What do the sports anxiety questionnaires measure?
Measure the anxiety in sporting situations
167
What are 3 advantages of using questionnaires to measure anxiety?
- cheap
- easy to administer
- large numbers can be assessed quickly
168
What are 3 disadvantages of using questionnaires to measure anxiety?
- may lack honesty
- misunderstanding the question
- biased questions may lead to biased results
169
What is aggression?
Behaviour that harms another human being what is intentional, deviant, reactive and out of control e.g. punching someone after a foul
170
What is assertion/instrumental aggression?
Behaviour that may involve physical force but is within the rules, without intention to harm and is motivated
171
What are the 4 theory’s of aggression?
- instinct theory
- frustration aggression theory
- aggressive cue theory
- social learning theory
172
What is instinct theory of aggression?
We all have the natural trait to be aggressive with enough provocation that leads to a cathartic release of emotion and tension
173
What are the drawbacks of the instinct theory?
- doesn’t consider effect of SLT
- often sport leads to increased aggression rather than catharsis
- not all humans have the innate trait to be aggressive
174
What is Dollard et al’s frustration-aggression theory?
When our goal is blocked by an obstacle it leads to frustration which causes aggression, if this is punished the aggression will build up but if it is successful the performer experiences catharsis
175
What are the drawbacks of frustration-aggression theory?
- not all individuals demonstrate aggression when frustrated
- people can display aggression without frustration
- no evidence for catharsis
176
What is aggressive-cue theory?
A goal is blocked causing frustration which leads to increased arousal so they are prepared for an aggressive act, if aggressive cues are present there is a greater likelihood of aggression and if there isn’t there is a lower likelihood of aggression
177
What is social learning theory of aggression?
We learn aggressive behaviours by observing role models do it by vicarious experiences
178
What are 4 cognitive aspects for the individual to control aggression?
- mental rehearsal
- imagery
- visualisation
- positive self talk
179
What are 2 somatic techniques an individual can control aggression?
- breathing control
- biofeedback
180
What are 4 ways a coach can help control aggression?
- praise non aggressive acts
- highlight non-aggressive role models
- punish aggressive behaviour
- highlight responsibilities in the team
181
What is motivation?
The will and desire to achieve success
182
What are the 2 factors determining motivation?
Inner drives and external pressures
183
What effect does motivation have on learning?
If a performer is motivated to learn they are more likely to stay focused and work hard
184
What 3 factors do motivation influence?
- selection preference for activity
- persistence
- effort levels
185
What is the equation involving motivation?
Performance = capabilities + motivation
186
What are the 2 types of motivation?
Intrinsic and extrinsic
187
What is intrinsic motivation?
- comes from within the performer
- e.g. gaining satisfaction, pride or achievement
188
What is extrinsic motivation?
- external rewards
- e.g. praise to trophies
189
What are the 2 types of extrinsic motivation?
Tangible or intangible
190
What are tangible extrinsic rewards?
Material rewards that can be sen and held e.g. certificate or trophy
191
What are intangible extrinsic rewards?
- rewards that cannot be physically held
- e.g. praise, compliments, publicity
192
What are 3 advantages of intrinsic motivation?
- long lasting effects
- inner drive never fully satisfied so the individual is constantly motivated
- performer isn’t reliant on others to motivate them
193
What is a disadvantage of intrinsic motivation?
May be reduced to a lack of success
194
What are 3 advantages of extrinsic motivation?
- provide feedback
- useful in early stages of learning
- useful in simple/boring tasks
195
What are 3 disadvantages of extrinsic motivation?
- performer may only do it for the reward
- lead to loss of intrinsic motivation
- can cause deviant behaviour
196
What are 5 ways a coach can motivate their performers?
- make the activity fun
- make it competitive
- set goals for individual players
- attribute success internally
- point out health benefits
197
What is achievement motivation?
Our level of competitiveness or desire for success
198
What are the 2 types of achievement motivation?
- need to achieve (NACH)
- need to avoid failure (NAF)
199
Who came up with NACH and NAF?
Atkinson
200
What behaviour do NACH performers exhibit?
Approach behaviour where they would rather take part than not
201
What are 4 characteristics of NACH?
- welcome competition
- take risks
- confident
- persist at tasks
202
What behaviour does NAF exhibit?
Avoidance behaviour where they prefer to avoid competition
203
What are 4 characteristics of NAF?
- give up easily
- avoid challenging situations
- attribute failure externally
- perform worse when being evaluated
204
What is incentive value of success and probability of success and an example?
- incentive value of success (Is) is what a performer feels they will gain from success
- probability of success (Ps) is how likely a performer is to be successful
- they are inversely proportional
- e.g. playing against a professional has a low Ps and a high Is but playing against a beginner has high Ps and low Is
205
What are 4 ways coaches can develop approach behaviour?
- ensure early success
- show successful role models
- use rewards
- make goals challenging but achievable
206
What is achievement goal theory?
- motivation and task persistence depends on the type of goal
- process goals involve learning to master a skills and has high intrinsic motivation
- outcome goals involves comparison to others where the performer is easily discouraged and so selects easier task
207
What are the 2 types of leaders?
Prescribed and emergent
208
209
What are prescribed leaders?
Appointed by a person of authority e.g. choosing a captain
210
What are emergent leaders?
They rise from within the group based on talent e.g. team mates choosing captain
211
What is the definition of leadership?
Behaviour that influences individuals and groups towards set goals
212
What are 4 qualities of an effective leader?
- motivating
- confident
- good decision making
- clear goals
213
What are the 3 types of leadership?
Democratic, autocratic and laissez faire
214
Who developed the different leadership styles?
Lewin
215
What is the autocratic leadership style and when is it used?
- task orientated
- leader makes all the decisions
- little time, large group, sports with safety risks
216
What is the democratic leadership style and when is it used?
- person orientated
- leader shares the decision with the group and seeks advice
- lots of time, experienced team members, individual sports
217
What is the laissez faire leadership style and when is it used?
- person orientated
- lets the team make the decisions and gives little directions
- elite sports performers only
218
What is Fiedler’s contingency model?
Leaders should decide whether to be tasked with orientated or person orientated based on the favourableness of the situation
219
According to Fiedler’s model, what makes a good leader?
Good leaders can change from person to task orientated depending on the situation
220
When is the task orientated approach used?
When the situation is most and least favourable
221
When is a person orientated approach used?
When the situation is moderately favourable
222
What did Chelladurai say about effective leadership?
It will vary depending on characteristics of the performers and the constraints of the situation
223
What are the 3 factors in Chelladurai’s multidimensional model?
- situation (e.g size of group, type of sport, winning or losing)
- team members (e.g. personality, age, gender)
- leader characteristics (e.g. confidence, assertiveness)
224
What are the 3 characteristics of the leaders behaviour in the multidimensional model?
- required behaviour (due to the situation)
- actual behaviour (what the leader actually exhibits)
- preferred behaviour (what the team wants)
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What do the antecedents and leaders behaviour result in?
The quality of performance and level of satisfaction
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What are 4 benefits of goal setting?
- increase self confidence through achievement
- motivates performer
- reduces stress
- develops NACH
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What are the different types of goals?
- outcome//product goal
- task orientated goal
- performance goal
- process goal
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What is an outcome/product goal?
- judges performance of individual against others based on result
- e.g. win the swimming championships
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What are task orientated goals?
- aim to master a skill to improve personal performance without comparison to others
- e.g. achieve best time in 10k
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What are performance goals?
- achieving specific standard or personal benchmark
- e.g. have faster split times than last time
231
What is a process goal?
- set to improve technique
- e.g. swimmer improving power of tumble turn
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What are the principles of goal setting (SMARTER)?
- specific
- measurable
- achievable
- realistic
- time bound
- evaluate
- redo
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What does specific mean in a SMARTER target?
Goal must be related to the performer
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What does measurable mean in SMARTER targets?
Must be able to be measured to see progress
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What does achievable mean in SMARTER targets?
The performer must be able to reach the goal to increase motivation
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What does realistic mean in SMARTER targets?
The goal must be within the performers capabilities
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What does time bound mean in SMARTER targets?
There must be a fixed deadline to ensure motivation
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What does evaluate mean in SMARTER targets?
The goal must be reviewed to whether it was achieved or not
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What does redo mean in SMARTER targets?
If goals aren’t reached the goal must be reset
240
What is stress?
The perceived imbalance between the demands of the task and the individuals ability to complete the task
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What can stress cause?
Anxiety
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What is eustress?
The positive effects of stress that involve euphoria and internal feelings of self satisfaction so you reach optimal arousal levels so you have the peak flow experience
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What is a stressor?
Perceived demands of a task that cause the stress
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What are 5 examples of stressors?
- threatening our self esteem
- cause personal harm
- cause frustration
- increased pressure
- fear of unknown
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What does how a person perceive a potentially stressful situation depend on?
- trait anxiety
- self confidence
- arousal levels
- importance of the event
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What are the 6 cognitive stress management techniques?
- imagery
- visualisation
- thought stopping
- mental rehearsal
- self talk
- attentional control and cue utilisation
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What is imagery?
- creating mental images to escape stressful situations
- can imagine a ‘happy place’ or past successful performances
- this increases self confidence
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What is visualisation?
- creating a mental image of what you want to happen or feel
- use it as a reference during performance
- visualise the sequences of movements
- can be internal or external
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What is thought stopping?
- using simple physical or mental actions such as clenching your fists to stop negative self talk
- focuses attention away from stressor and redirects it to your performance
250
What is mental rehearsal?
- going over the movements in your head prior to performance
- helps the performer to remember the sequence so there is less stress around forgetting it
251
What is self talk?
- positive self talk leads to positive thoughts
- this improves self confidence and concentration
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What is attentional control and cue utilisation?
- aims to improve ability to focus on the appropriate cues (cue utilisation) and not focus on distractions (attentional wastage) or miss important cues (attentional narrowing)
- Niddefer linked this to his model of attentional focus which consists of different attentional focuses (broad - invasion games and narrow - net games) and sources (external - environment and internal - within the performer)
- the performers who select the right attentional focus the lower the stress levels
253
What are the 4 different somatic stress management techniques?
- biofeedback
- breathing control
- centering
- progressive muscle relaxation
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What is biofeedback?
- use of physiological equipment such as a heart rate monitor to monitor changes in the body due to stress
- they are taught techniques to reduce these effects and watch them reduce so know to use them when stressed while performing
255
What is breathing control?
- learning to breathe deeply to slow heart rate
- also distracts attention from stressful situations so prevents negative thoughts
- works well with PMR
256
What is centering?
- maintaining a slow steady breathing pace and concentrating on that before switching back external cues
- helps keep performer in the present
257
What is progressive muscle relaxation?
- contract muscles tightly for a few seconds and then relax
- start at extremities and move inwards
- works well with breathing control
258
How can a warm up aid cognitive and somatic stress?
- pulse raiser prepares the body for exercise
- skill based exercises help the performer to focus on the task at hand
259
What is an attribution?
The perceived reason for success or failure
260
What do attributions have an effect on?
- future motivation an effort
- future task persistence
- future expectations of success and failure
261
What are the 4 main reasons for success or failure on Weiner’s model?
- ability
- task difficulty
- effort
- luck
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What are the 2 loci on Weiner’s model?
- locus of causality
- locus of stability
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What are the 2 levels of the locus of causality?
- internal (in performers control)
- external (environmental factors)
264
What are the 2 levels of locus of stability?
- stable (consistent)
- unstable (not consistent)
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What is the internal stable cause?
Ability
266
What is the external stable cause?
Task difficulty
267
What is the internal unstable cause?
Effort
268
What is the external unstable cause?
Luck
269
Where do high achievers attribute their successes to?
- internal stable causes (effort)
- highlights personal achievements
- believe they will win again
- keeps motivation high
270
Where do high achievers attribute their failures?
- external unstable causes
- limits sense of shame as it was beyond their control
- protects their confidence
- motivated to try again as it will change
271
Where do low achievers attribute their successes?
- external unstable causes
- do not feel pride in what they achieved
- don’t believe they can succeed again
- don’t gain any confidence
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Where do low achievers attribute their failures?
- internal stable causes
- see defeat as their fault
- believe they cannot do anything to change their performance
- lack confidence and motivation
273
Where should successes be attributed to ensure task persistence?
Internal stable factors so the performer believes that they caused that behaviour and so they can do it again so try harder in the future
274
Where should failures be attributed to ensure task persistence?
External unstable factors as the performer can think that the situation was out of their control and can change for next time
275
What is the self serving bias?
Attributing successes internally and failures externally to protect self worth and confidence
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What is learned helplessness?
When low achievers believe failure is inevitable and feel a sense of hopelessness as they cannot do anything to change it
277
What are the characteristics of learned helplessness?
- believes they have a limited ability
- judge performance on outcome goals
- unwilling to try new skills as they believe they will be unsuccessful
- attribute failure to stable, controllable factors
- don’t believe they things they do have control over will make a difference
278
What is specific learned helplessness?
Belief that failure is inevitable at a specific skill
279
What is general/global learned helplessness?
Belief that failure in any situation is inevitable
280
What is attribution retraining?
Used to overcome learned helplessness by attributing failures to factors that can be controlled
281
What are the specific strategies used to overcome learned helplessness?
- observe and monitor performers attributions
- focus performers attention on process rather than outcome
- use stats in a positive way to highlight contributions and allow progress to be seen
- ensure initial success to develop confidence and self belief
- stress management techniques
- develop self efficacy
- positive reinforcement
- vicarious experiences
282
What are causes of aggression?
- playing badly
- feel team mates aren’t trying
- disagreement with officials decision
- provocation
- important game
- over arousal
- naturally aggressive personality
283
How can officials reduce aggression?
- pre warning players
- punish aggressive behaviour
- applying rules correctly and fairly
- consistency with punishments
