ARICULTURE-1 Flashcards
t soil erosion affects
about 13% of India’s land area.
Agriculture accounts
for approximately 80% of India’s total water use,
India’s Watershed Area:
India has approximately 2.6 million square kilometers of watershed area, which is about 79% of the country’s land area ([Source: National Remote Sensing Centre
- Agricultural Dependency:
About 60% of India’s agricultural land is dependent on watershed management for irrigation and water supply ([Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare]
- Rainfed Agriculture:
Approximately 40% of India’s net sown area is rainfed and relies heavily on effective watershed management ([Source: Indian Council of Agricultural Research]
WATERSHED
- Palfu Watershed (Madhya Pradesh):
- Madhya Pradesh Watershed Development Project
- Sujanpur Tira Watershed (Himachal Pradesh)
-
Soma Watershed (Rajasthan):
5.Deccan Development Society (DDS) Watershed Project (Telangana)
IWM
As of recent reports, IWD programs cover approximately 10% of India’s total land area, focusing on critical watersheds across the country.
IWM
- Enhanced Water Availability: In the Arvari River basin in Rajasthan,
- Improved Soil Health: In the Malkangiri district of Odisha,
- Increased Agricultural Productivity:: In the Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh,
- Reduced Flooding and Waterlogging: In the Kutch region of Gujarat, check dams and other water retention structures
- Biodiversity Conservation: In the Western Ghats, watershed development projects have helped restore native vegetation and improve habitat conditions for wildlife.
- Sustainable Livelihoods:: In the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, IWD projects have supported eco-tourism and non-timber forest products, providing alternative livelihoods for local communities.
- Community Empowerment: In the Bundelkhand region, local communities have been actively involved in watershed management, leading to increased ownership and sustainable practices.
- Climate Resilience:: In the Chhattisgarh state, integrated watershed development has enhanced the region’s resilience to climate variability and extreme weather events.
- Mulching with Straw:
In a dryland maize field, applying 7 cm of straw mulch reduced ET losses by 30% and increased yield by 15%.
- Drip Irrigation in Vineyard:
Using drip irrigation with a flow rate of 3 L/hour/plant reduced water use by 40% compared to traditional irrigation.
- Windbreaks with Eucalyptus:
A 4-row windbreak of Eucalyptus trees reduced wind speed by 60% and improved soil moisture retention in an adjacent wheat field.
social forests
-
West Bengal Social Forestry Project:
- Engaged local communities in afforestation activities, resulting in significant green cover increase and improved livelihoods.
- Promoted the cultivation of fast-growing tree species like eucalyptus and acacia.
-
Tamil Nadu Social Forestry Project:
- Focused on the rehabilitation of degraded forests and wastelands through community participation.
- Provided fuelwood, fodder, and timber to rural communities, enhancing their economic conditions.
-
Joint Forest Management (JFM) in Andhra Pradesh:
- Involved local communities in the management of forest resources.
- Improved forest health and provided economic benefits to participating communities.
agroforestry
-
National Agroforestry Policy (2014):
- Objective: Promote integrated tree-based farming systems, enhance livelihoods, and address environmental issues.
-
Sub-Mission on Agroforestry (SMAF):
- Part of: National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA).
- Objective: Expand the area under agroforestry and provide technical and financial support to farmers.
-
Green India Mission:
- Objective: Enhance forest and tree cover, restore degraded ecosystems, and increase carbon sequestration.
-
Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP):
- Objective: Empower women farmers through sustainable agricultural practices.
Forest Cover in India:
As per the India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2021, India has a total forest and tree cover of 80.9 million hectares, which constitutes 24.62% of the country’s geographical area.
Source: India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2021
Biodiversity:
India’s forests are home to around 7% of the world’s biodiversity. The country has over 47,000 species of plants and 89,000 species of animals.
Source: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India
agroforestry valueaddition
- Madhya Pradesh - Teak and Intercropping: Processing teak timber into high-quality furniture and utilizing intercrop(legumes and vegetable) produce for local markets.
- Karnataka - Areca Palm and Spices: Processing cardamom and pepper into packaged spices, adding value to both primary and secondary products.
- Kerala - Rubber Agroforestry: Processing rubber into various products and marketing fruits(pineapples and bananas.) locally and nationally
- Assam - Bamboo-Based Enterprises: Producing and selling bamboo furniture and handicrafts, adding economic value to bamboo cultivation.
- Himachal Pradesh - Apple Orchards with Understory Crops:Processing apples into juices, sauces, and jams, and marketing additional crops for local consumption.
soil
Soil is the natural body composed of minerals, organic matter, water, and air, serving as a medium for plant growth. It is formed through the weathering of rocks and the decomposition of organic matter, resulting in a complex mixture that supports life.
Hydrolysis of feldspar to clay:
2K AlSi_3O_8 + 11H_2O + 2H^+ ———->2K^+ + Al_2Si_2O_5(OH)_4 + 4H_4SiO_4
Podzolization**:
Organic acids + Fe/Al oxides ———–>Fe/Al-humus complexes
Laterization:
Primary minerals + H_2O + O_2 ————-> Secondary minerals + Si(OH)_4 +Fe/Al oxides
- Salinization:.
NaCl (from water)—————–>{Na}^+ + {Cl}^-
- Calcification:
CaCO}_3 ————>{Ca}^{2+} + {CO}_3^{2-}
- Gleying:
{Fe}^{3+} + {e}^- ————–>{Fe}^{2+}
- Hydrolysis:
-
Example: Feldspar in granite reacts with carbonic acid to form clay minerals.
2KAlSi_3O_8 + 11H_2O + 2H^+ \rightarrow 2K^+ + Al_2Si_2O_5(OH)_4 + 4H_4SiO_4
- Oxidation:
-
Example: Iron-rich minerals in rocks oxidize to form rust (iron oxide).
4Fe + 3O_2 + 6H_2O \rightarrow 4Fe(OH)_3
- Carbonation:
-
Example: Limestone dissolves in carbonic acid to form calcium bicarbonate.
CaCO_3 + H_2CO_3 \rightarrow Ca^{2+} + 2HCO_3^-
weed resistnace
- Amaranthus spp. (Pigweed): Various species, including Palmer amaranth and waterhemp, have developed resistance to multiple herbicide modes of action, including glyphosate and ALS inhibitors.
- Echinochloa crus-galli (Barnyardgrass): This weed has developed resistance to herbicides such as ALS inhibitors and ACCase inhibitors.
- Phalaris minor dev resistance against isoproturon
biology weed control
Insects: - Cactoblastis cactorum: Used to control prickly pear cactus (Opuntia spp.) in Australia.
2. Pathogens: - Colletotrichum gloeosporioides: A fungal pathogen used to control tropical soda apple (Solanum viarum) in the United States.
3. Grazing Animals: - Goats: Used to control various invasive weed species, such as kudzu (Pueraria montana) and leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula).
- Genetic Engineering of Bioagents:
- Modified Pathogens:- For example, genetically modified strains of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides have been developed to improve control of invasive weeds like tropical soda apple.
- RNA Interference (RNAi) Technology:
- RNAi-based Bioagents: . For example, RNAi constructs targeting vital genes in Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) are being investigated for their potential to control this resistant weed.
- Augmentative Biological Control:
- Releases of Mass-reared Bioagents: An example is the release of the gall fly Urophora affinis to control spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa) in the western United States.
. Microbial Bioherbicides:
- Formulated Microbial Products: For instance, Pseudomonas fluorescens strain ACK55 has been formulated and used to control cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) in rangelands.
- Endophytic Fungi:
- Endophyte-Infected Grasses: For example, endophyte-infected tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) has been shown to suppress the growth of neighboring weeds.
- Glyphosate
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Formulation: Liquid (e.g., Roundup, Glyphosate 41%)
- Mode of Action: Systemic, inhibits amino acid synthesis.
- Usage: Broad-spectrum herbicide used in various crops, including soybeans and corn.
- 2,4-D
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Formulation: Liquid, Granular
- Mode of Action: Systemic, mimics plant hormones to cause uncontrolled growth.
- Usage: Selective herbicide for broadleaf weeds in cereals and pastures.
- Atrazine
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Formulation: Granular, Liquid
- Mode of Action: Pre-emergence, inhibits photosynthesis.
- Usage: Used primarily in corn and sorghum fields to control broadleaf and grassy weeds.
- Paraquat
-
Formulation: Liquid
- Mode of Action: Contact herbicide, disrupts photosynthesis.
- Usage: Non-selective herbicide used for weed control in various crops.
- Crop Injury:
For instance, residual glyphosate can impact crops like soybeans or wheat if they are planted in fields where glyphosate was recently used.
- Soil Health:
For example, residual herbicides like atrazine can impact beneficial soil microbes, affecting nutrient cycling and soil structure.
- Environmental Impact: .
herbicides like atrazine and metolachlor have been detected in water bodies, impacting water quality and aquatic life.
Example: Roundup Ready Crops - Crops like soybeans, corn, and cotton that are genetically modified to be tolerant to glyphosate, allowing farmers to apply glyphosate to control weeds without harming the crop.
- ## **Herbicide Mixtures and Tank
Example: Premix Herbicides - Products like Dual Magnum (a combination of metolachlor and s-metolachlor) and Authority MTZ (a mix of sulfentrazone and metribuzin) offer broad-spectrum weed control by targeting multiple weed species and reducing the risk of resistance.
- ## Advanced Formulations
Example: Controlled-Release Herbicides - Formulations such as The Halo (a controlled-release formulation of dicamba) provide extended weed control by releasing the herbicide over a longer period, reducing the need for multiple applications.
- **Herbicide-resistant Weeds Management*
- Example: Enlist Duo - A herbicide combination of glyphosate and 2,4-D specifically designed for use with Enlist™ crops that are resistant to both herbicides. This system helps manage glyphosate-resistant weed populations more effectively.
- Herbicide Application Timing and Modeling
- Example: Weed Management Decision Support Tools - Tools like WeedSOFT use predictive models to determine the best timing and herbicide options based on current weed conditions and forecasted weather.
- ## Target-Specific Herbicides
Example: Raptor (imazamox) - A herbicide that is highly effective against broadleaf and grassy weeds in legumes like chickpeas and lentils, with minimal impact on the crops.
- Smart Spraying Systems
- Example: Robotic Weeders - Autonomous robots like EcoWeeder and Raptor use machine vision to identify and spray weeds selectively, reducing herbicide use and environmental impact.
- ## Herbicide Drift Reduction Technologies:
Example: Drift Reduction Adjuvants - Products like Garlon 4 and Liberty® include drift-reducing additives that help ensure herbicides stay where they are intended and reduce the risk of harming non-target plants.
- Contact Herbicides
-
Examples:
- Paraquat: A non-selective contact herbicide used to control a wide range of annual and perennial weeds. It works by disrupting photosynthesis.
- Systemic Herbicides
-
Examples:
- Glyphosate: A non-selective systemic herbicide that inhibits the shikimic acid pathway, which is essential for amino acid synthesis in plants and some microorganisms.
- Post-Emergence Herbicides
-
Examples:
- Dicamba: A selective post-emergence herbicide that affects broadleaf weeds by disrupting plant hormone balance.
- Pre-Emergence Herbicides
-
Examples:
- Pendimethalin: A pre-emergence herbicide that inhibits cell division, preventing weed seeds from germinating and developing.
- Soil-Applied Herbicides
- Post-Harvest Herbicides
-
Examples:
- Roundup (glyphosate): Often used as a post-harvest treatment to clear fields of weeds before planting a new crop.
- Insects
.
-
Zygogramma bicolorata
- Target: Parthenium hysterophorus
- Description: A beetle that feeds on parthenium, causing defoliation and reduced seed production.
-
Rhinocyllus conicus
- Target: Carduus spp. (Thistles)
- Description: A weevil that feeds on thistle flowers, reducing seed production and growth.
- Pathogens
-
Puccinia abrupta var. partheniicola
- Target: Parthenium hysterophorus
- Description: A rust fungus that infects and kills parthenium plants, reducing their spread.
-
Alternaria helianthi
- Target: Ambrosia artemisiifolia (Common ragweed)
- Description: A fungus that causes leaf spots and reduces weed vigor and seed production
- Grazing Animals
-
Goats
- Target: Various invasive weeds, including Kudzu and Puncturevine
- Description: Goats graze on weeds, reducing their biomass and seed production.
Bioherbicides
Examples:
1. Mycoherbicides
- Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. aeschynomene
- Target: Aeschynomene species
- Description: A fungal pathogen used as a bioherbicide to control certain aquatic and wetland weeds.
2. Bacterial Herbicides
- Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
- Target: Various broadleaf weeds
- Description: A bacterium that produces toxins affecting weed growth.
3. Plant Extracts
- Allelopathic Plant Extracts
- Example: Garlic extract or Eucalyptus oil
- Target: Various weed species
- Description: Natural plant extracts with allelopathic effects that inhibit the growth of target weeds.
- Single Site Resistance (Target Site Resistance)
- Atrazine Resistance: Echinochloa colona (Jungle rice) has developed resistance to atrazine due to changes in the D1 protein, which is the target site for the herbicide.
- Non-Target Site Resistance
- Paraquat Resistance: Convolvulus arvensis (Field bindweed) shows resistance to paraquat through enhanced detoxification mechanisms that break down the herbicide more efficiently.
- Multiple Herbicide Resistance
- Palmer Amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri): This weed has developed resistance to multiple herbicides, including glyphosate, atrazine, and 2,4-D, complicating management efforts.
- **Cross-Resistance*
- Phalaris minor (Little seed canarygrass): Resistance to Clodinafop (an ACCase inhibitor) can lead to resistance to other ACCase inhibitors like Pinoxaden.
rice weeds
- Echinochloa spp. (Barnyard grass)
- Cyperus difformis (Smallflower Umbrella Sedge)
- Fimbristylis miliacea (Grasslike Fimbry)
- Ischaemum rugosum (Wrinklegrass)
- Scirpus spp. (Bulrush)
- Sagittaria trifolia (Arrowhead)
- Ludwigia parviflora (Water Primrose)
wheat weeds
- Phalaris minor (Littleseed Canarygrass)
- Avena ludoviciana (Wild Oat)
- Chenopodium album (Lamb’s Quarters)
- Melilotus alba (White Sweetclover)
- Rumex dentatus (Toothed Dock)
- Medicago spp. (Alfalfa)
- Convolvulus arvensis (Field Bindweed)
sugarcane weeds
- Cyperus rotundus (Purple Nutsedge)
- Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda Grass)
- Echinochloa colona (Jungle Rice)
- Sorghum halepense (Johnsongrass)
- Imperata cylindrica (Cogongrass)
- Brachiaria mutica (Para Grass)
- Panicum maximum (Guinea Grass)
cotton
- Amaranthus spp. (Pigweed)
- Cyperus esculentus (Yellow Nutsedge)
- Eleusine indica (Goosegrass)
- Xanthium strumarium (Common Cocklebur)
- Conyza canadensis (Horseweed)
- Parthenium hysterophorus (Parthenium)
- Tribulus terrestris (Puncturevine)
pulses
- Chenopodium album (Lamb’s Quarters)
- Cuscuta spp. (Dodder)
- Euphorbia hirta (Asthma Weed)
- Amaranthus spp. (Pigweed)
- Digitaria spp. (Crabgrass)
- Portulaca oleracea (Purslane)
- Cyperus rotundus (Purple Nutsedge)
groundnut weeds
- Arachis hypogaea (Groundnut)
- Cyperus rotundus (Purple Nutsedge)
- Digitaria spp. (Crabgrass)
- Echinochloa colona (Jungle Rice)
- Euphorbia hirta (Asthma Weed)
- Amaranthus spp. (Pigweed)
- Parthenium hysterophorus (Parthenium)
