approaches paper 2 completed

Question 1

describe wundt a01

Answer 1

Whilhelm Wundt is generally regarded as the founding father of experimental psychology. In 1879 he opened the Institute for Experimental Psychology in Germany. Psychology previously had been seen as a branch philosophy, he separated them to focus on studying the mind in a much more structured and scientific approach. Wundt was classed as a structuralist which means that he believed that human thoughts and experiences can be broken down into component parts in order to better understand them. The main method that Wundt used to study thoughts and emotions was introspection.

Question 2

what is introsction wundt

Answer 2

Introspection is a psychological method which involves analysing your own thoughts and feelings internally. Wundt believed that with appropriate training mental processes such as memory, perception and sensations could be observed systematically. He theorised that such thoughts could be broken down into separate sensations by focussing on them and recording them carefully.

Question 3

wndts method for studying introspection

Answer 3

Wundt exposed his trainees to certain stimuli (such as a ticking metronome) and asked them to observe their own thoughts, sensations and feelings towards the stimuli. These introspections were recorded. Wundt believed that because these studies took place in a laboratory setting this made them scientific and objective.

Question 4

what are freuds 3 levels of consciousness, psychodynamic approach

Answer 4

· Conscious – what we are aware of at any given time

· Preconscious – memories that we can recall when we want to

· Unconscious – memories, desires, fears which cause us extreme anxiety and have therefore been repressed or forced out of conscious awareness. However the unconscious still influences our behaviour, it influences the content of our dreams, influences what we say (Freudian slips) and influences our behaviour (projection, displacement). The unconscious mind can be accessed with the help of a psychanalyst.

Question 5

psychodynamic a01

Answer 5

Psychodynamic theories emphasise the importance of childhood on shaping personality and the role of unconscious motives and desires in determining behaviour. Freud identified 3 levels of consciousness:

· Conscious – what we are aware of at any given time

· Preconscious – memories that we can recall when we want to

· Unconscious – memories, desires, fears which cause us extreme anxiety and have therefore been repressed or forced out of conscious awareness. However the unconscious still influences our behaviour, it influences the content of our dreams, influences what we say (Freudian slips) and influences our behaviour (projection, displacement). The unconscious mind can be accessed with the help of a psychanalyst.

Question 6

freuds structure of personality a01- psychodynamic approach

Answer 6

Our early experiences are believed to be vital in shaping our personality. The approach argues that there are three parts to our personality and the way they develop affects the person we become. The three elements are the id, ego and superego.

ID
EGO
SUPEREGO

Question 7

describe the ID- frueds psychodynamic approach

Answer 7

– This forms from birth to about 18 months old. It is also sometimes referred to as the ‘pleasure principle’ – the Id gets what it wants. This is because the dominant force of the Id is to seek pleasure. It is the childlike, selfish and self-indulgent part of your personality, which focuses on the self. The id operates at the unconscious level it drives our behaviour but we are not aware of it, the id is associated with our physical appetites including the libido.

Question 8

describe the ego - freuds psychodynamic approach

Answer 8

The ego develops between the ages of 18 months and three years and can be referred to as the ‘reality principle’. It is able to delay the id’s drive for pleasure. It also keeps the balance of influence between the id and the superego as they are opposite forces – it is the mediator. The ego’s role is to reduce conflict between the demands of the id and the superego, and it manages this by employing a number of defence mechanisms (see the next page). Neither the id nor the superego should become dominant in a personality, otherwise they could adversely affect the behaviour and mental health of the individual. It is the role of the ego to try to ensure this does not happen.

Question 9

describe the superego - freuds psychdynamic approach

Answer 9

The superego is the last element of the three personality influences to develop and does so between the ages of three and six years old. Another name for the superego is the ‘morality principle’. The role of the superego is to act as an individual’s conscience. It is the opposite of the id in that it feels guilt and holds someone back from behaving a certain way if it is thought to be wrong. The superego helps a personality to form a moral code. It is our internalised sense of right and wrong. The superego is influenced by parental expectations.

Question 10

conclusion of freuds 3 parts of our personality - psychodynamic approach

Answer 10

These three elements of the personality (id, ego, superego ) are shaped through experience and will affect how someone behaves. This approach suggests that much of our behaviour comes from the constant conflict between the three.

Question 11

what is the role of the unconscious ao1 frued (defence mechanisms) psychodynamic approach

Answer 11

The ego has a difficult job balancing the conflicting demands of the Id and the superego but it does have help in the form of defence mechanisms. These are unconscious and ensure that the ego is able to prevent us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats or traumas. They are methods we use unconsciously to

reduce anxiety; anxiety weakens the ego which needs to be strong to mediate between the Id and superego. However, they often involve some form of distortion of reality and as a long-term solution they are regarded as psychologically unhealthy and undesirable

repressionm denial, displacement

Question 12

describe repression and its effect of behaviour (defence mechanism) freuds psychodynamic approach

Answer 12

An unpleasant memory is pushed into the unconscious mind where it is not accessible to the conscious mind and therefore cannot cause anxiety. It does, however, still affect behaviour in the unconscious mind. There is no recall of the event or situation.

Question 13

describe denial and its effect of behaviour (defence mechanism) freuds psychodynamic approach

Answer 13

This is a refusal to accept the reality of an unpleasant situation. This reduces anxiety caused by that situation. Someone may believe that the situation is not negative and that therefore it should not cause anxiety. This is not positive thinking, merely a resistance to accept reality

Question 14

describe displacement and its effect on behaviour (defence mechanism) freuds psychodynamic approach

Answer 14

This is when the focus of a strong emotion is expressed onto a neutral person or object. This reduces anxiety by allowing expression of that emotion. Someone may exhibit very strong emotion but focus it onto an uninvolved person or object.

Question 15

describe a01 freuds 5 psychosexual stages of development - psychodynamic approach

Answer 15

The 5 psychosexual stages of development are a series of stages every individual progresses through from birth to becoming an adult. Each stage (apart from latency) is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve in order to progress successfully to the next stage – the drives in our unconscious mind, which are sexual, dictate the stages we experience at various stages of development. Any psychosexual conflict that is unresolved leads to fixation where the child becomes ‘stuck’ and carries certain behaviours and conflicts associated with that stage through to adult life.

oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital

Question 16

a01 for oral stage of psychosexual stages of development - psychodynamic approach

Answer 16

Oral (0-1 years)
Conflict/crisis:
weening

The focus for pleasure and gratification is the mouth. Pleasure is derived from biting and sucking. If a child is weaned from its mother’s milk too early or too late, or feeding patterns are erratic, the child will become fixated at the oral stage. Oral fixations – smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical

ID present from birth

Question 17

describe a01 for anal psychosexual stage of development - psychodynamic approach

Answer 17

Anal (1-3years)
Conflict/crisis:
toilet training

Ego develops at this stage The libido (sexual energy) of the child moves focus from the mouth to the anus. Pleasure is derived from defecating. This is also the age at which the child is potty trained. If the child loves using the potty and is overly keen to do so, then the child is anally expulsive. If the parents are very strict about potty training, the child will become anxious about using the potty and try to hold on to the faeces rather than use the potty, this is what as referred to as anal retentive. Anal expulsive – thoughtless, messy, have a temper Anal retentive – perfectionist, obsessive, organised, reluctant to spend money

Question 18

describe a01 of phallic stage of psychosexual stages of development - psychodynamic approach

Answer 18

Phallic (3-5 years)

Conflict/crisis: Oedipus/ Electra

Complex Superego develops at this stage (once the child has identified with same sex parent and internalised their moral
code).
At this stage the focus of pleasure moves to the genitals. This stage is differentiated by the gender of the child.

Boys experience the Oedipus complex – Freud believed that at this stage boys experience intense sexual feelings for their mother. His father is then seen as a rival. As the father is a lot bigger than the boy, the child feels threatened by his presence, and is worried that his father will ‘castrate’ him as he may see him as a rival and this is called ‘castration anxiety’. In order for the anxiety to be reduced he has to befriend his father, by acting similarly – this is called identification, which reduces the anxiety and the Oedipus complex is resolved. Fixation occurs at this stage if there is no father to identify with (i.e. single parent family).

Girls experience, they experience the Electra complex, where they realise they do not have a penis. They think that the mother has removed it, and so they develop penis envy of males. When that desire is not fulfilled it is expressed through the desire for a baby. The girl desires the father in the same way boys do with their mother, and so goes through the identification process in the same way. Homosexuality, reckless, narcissistic, jealousy, anxiety.

Question 19

what do boys experience in phallic stage of psychosexual development- psychodynamic approach

Answer 19

Boys experience the Oedipus complex – Freud believed that at this stage boys experience intense sexual feelings for their mother. His father is then seen as a rival. As the father is a lot bigger than the boy, the child feels threatened by his presence, and is worried that his father will ‘castrate’ him as he may see him as a rival and this is called ‘castration anxiety’. In order for the anxiety to be reduced he has to befriend his father, by acting similarly – this is called identification, which reduces the anxiety and the Oedipus complex is resolved. Fixation occurs at this stage if there is no father to identify with (i.e. single parent family).

Question 20

what do girls experience in the phallic stage of psychosexual development- psychodynamic approach

Answer 20

Girls experience, they experience the Electra complex, where they realise they do not have a penis. They think that the mother has removed it, and so they develop penis envy of males. When that desire is not fulfilled it is expressed through the desire for a baby. The girl desires the father in the same way boys do with their mother, and so goes through the identification process in the same way

Question 21

describe ao1 of the latency stage - psychosexual development, psychodynamic approach

Answer 21

Latency (6-12 years)
Conflict/crisis: None
Earlier conflicts are repressed. Children take advantage of their newly attained gender identity (caused by identification with same sex parent in phallic stage) to use this time to affiliate with own sex.

Question 22

describe the a01 of the genital stage of psychosexual stages - psychodynamic approach

Answer 22

Genital stage (12+ years)
Conflict/Crisis: Sexual intimacy
Sexual desires become conscious as the adolescent enters puberty. They attempt to form adult sexual relationships. Difficulty developing sexual relationships.

Question 23

describe the key functions of the behaviourist approah

Answer 23

The behaviourist approach views a person as being born as a ‘blank slate’, everything about them is learnt from the environment around them through conditioning processes with the exception of a few reflexive behaviours. It is only concerned with behaviour that is observable and measurable, behaviourists do not believe that we can study the internal workings of the mind, early behaviourist John Watson rejected Wundt’s introspection as being too vague and difficult to measure. Watson believed that the study of the mind was irrelevant because we cannot obtain any measurable data from it . Behaviorists also believed that animals and humans learn pretty much in the same way. Humans are more complex and can do more complex things but the basic principles of learning are the same ie we form stimulus-response links

Question 24

what is classical conditioning

Answer 24

Classical conditioning is learning through association and both humans and animals can learn in this way. An association is made between previously neutral stimulus and a reflex. A reflex is blinking when we get dirt in our eye or removing your hand from something hot ie it is an involuntary behaviour that doesn’t require thought.

Question 25

discuss classical conditioninng behaviourist approach- pavlos research

Answer 25

Classical conditioning was first documented by Ivan Pavlov (18-49-1936). He was a physiologist whose work initially focused on the digestive system of dogs. To do this a dog was harnessed to a bench with a tube coming out of its mouth and going into a jar. When his assistant came into the laboratory with food for the dog, Pavlov noticed that the dog salivated upon hearing the sound of the door.

Dogs salivate automatically when they see food, but Pavlov’s dog had clearly made an association with the imminent arrival of food when the door was opened. Pavlov decided to look at this association in his research.

When the dog hears the bell there is no reflex response, Pavlov termed this the neutral stimulus ie it isn’t something that would ordinarily produce a response in the dog.

So, Pavlov rang a bell whenever the dogs were given food.

The natural response for a dog when it smells food is to salivate to aid digestion, this is an unlearned response or an unconditioned response.

The sound of the bell is then paired with the presentation of food and over time they became associated. This meant that the sound of the bell would eventually result in salivation even in the absence of food. The bell was the conditioned stimulus and the salivation to the sound of the bell was the conditioned response.

Question 26

what are the principles of classical conditioning - behaviorist approach classical conditioning (2q principles)

Answer 26

· Generalisation – stimuli similar to the original CS produce the CR

· Extinction – when the CR is not produced in response to the CS – this happens when the CS is repeatedly presented in the absence of the UCS

Question 27

describe work of skinner operant conditioning - behaviorist approach

Answer 27

BF Skinner studied how animals learn from the consequences of their actions:

1. Positive reinforcement – if our behaviour results in a positive consequence then we are more likely to repeat that behaviour in the future e.g. a child being rewarded with star of the week for their behaviour in school.
2. Negative reinforcement – if a behaviour results in the avoidance of a negative consequence then this is rewarding and will be more likely to repeated. e.g. a person with a fear of dogs crosses the road to avoid

passing a dog, this reduces their anxiety and is thus rewarding as their anxiety has reduced.

3. Punishment – if our behaviour is ikely to result in a negative consequence then this will act as a punishment and we will be less likely to repeat that behaviour. For example not attending college or handing in homework and being placed on a contract!

Question 28

describe skinners research and findings- behaviourist approach

Answer 28

In 1938 Skinner demonstrated operant conditioning with rats. Skinner created the ‘Skinner box’ in which he placed one rat at a time.

Each Skinner box contained a variety of different stimuli: a speaker, lights, a floor which administered electric shocks and a food dispenser which released food when a lever was pressed.

A hungry rat was placed in the box and the time taken for the rats to learn that pressing the lever resulted in food was recorded. Initially the rat learned through trial and error and it initially accidentally pressed the lever and it was rewarded with food. The more the rat was placed back into the box the quicker they got at learning where the lever was. Skinner demonstrated that the rats were conditioned to press the lever because they had learnt that is resulted in a reward (food) ie the lever pressing was positively reinforced.

Skinner also demonstrated negative reinforcement by placing the rat in the box and then electrifying the floor when a light came on– the rat had to learn to press the lever when the light came on to prevent the electric shock ie pressing the lever in response to the light was negatively reinforcing as it avoided the shock.

Question 29

a01 humanistic approach intro

Answer 29

Humanistic psychology emerged in the United States in the 1950’s due to the work of Rogers and Maslow. It became known as the ‘third force’ in psychology. Rogers questioned the ‘first force’ – psychodynamics, as it focused on unhealthy development, as well as the ‘second force’ – behaviourism, due to its deterministic and overly scientific ideas. The humanistic approach concerned itself with explanations of ‘healthy’ growth in individual

Question 30

what are the 4 key assumptions of humanistic approach

Answer 30

1. every individual is unique
2. free will
3. people should be viewed holistically
4. scientific method is not appropriate

Question 31

describe the assumption of uniqueness in the humanistic approach

Answer 31

Every individual is unique – According to this approach we should not generalise to groups as there are so many differences within a group. Viewing people as unique individuals is called idiographic.

Question 32

describe the assumption of free will in the humanistic approach

Answer 32

Free will – The other approaches are deterministic to some degree, in that they suggest that our behaviour is entirely, or at least partly, shaped by forces over which we have no control. Humanistic psychologists claim that human beings are self-determining and have free will – we can decide and choose our course of action. To the humanistic approach this provides evidence of its existence. Free will means that a person is responsible for their own behaviour, social or anti-social. But humanists do acknowledge that there are constraints on the choices available to an individual at any point, so it is not always the case that a person behaves in the way they would have preferred.

Question 33

describe the key assumption of viewing people holistically in the humanistic approach

Answer 33

People should be viewed holistically – We should not look at just one aspect of an individual, if only one part of them is considered, then what could be affecting them might be missed. Humanists do not agree with focusing on childhood in therapy, they believe the whole life should be considered.

Question 34

describe the assumption of science isnt appropriate in the humanistic approach

Answer 34

The scientific method is not appropriate to measure behaviour – This approach argues that the scientific method tries to be too objective (free from opinion and bias). This means that the methods used by other approaches in measuring behaviour are inappropriate as they try to measure without acknowledging the subjective experience of the individual.

Question 35

describe a01 work of maslow

Answer 35

hierarchy of needs

self acualisation
Every person has an innate tendency to achieve their full potential – to become the best they can possibly be. Self-actualisation represents the uppermost level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

4 levels
1. physiological needs
2. safety needs
3. belongingness and love needs
4. esteem needs
5. self actualisation

All four lower levels of the hierarchy (‘deficiency needs’) must be met before the individual can work towards self-actualisation (a ‘growth need’) and fulfil their potential.

Humanistic psychologists regard personal growth as an essential part of what it is to be human. Personal growth is concerned with developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal orientated. Not everyone will manage this however, and there are important psychological barriers that will prevent a person from reaching their potential

Question 36

what are the 5 levels on maslows hierarchy of needs and what they involve

Answer 36

1. physiological needs- food, warmth, rest, water
2. safety needs- security, safety
3. belongingness and love needs- intimate relationships, friends
4. esteem needs- prestige and feeling of accomplishment
5. self actualization- achieving ones full potential

Question 37

what did rogers suggest - the humanistic approach

Answer 37

we have three ‘selves’ which need to integrate to achieve self-actualization.

these include
- self concept
- ideal self
- real self
- congruence
-unconditional positive regard

Question 38

what are the key assumptions of the biological approach

Answer 38

The biological approach suggests that everything psychological is at first biological. So to fully understand human behaviour, we must look at biological structures and processes within the body, such as genes, neurochemistry and the nervous system. An understanding of brain structure and function can explain our thoughts and behaviour. According to this approach, the mind is in the brain, therefore thoughts, feelings and behaviour have a physical basis.

Question 39

what does genetic basis of behaviour involve in the biological approach

Answer 39

• study behavioural characteristics- intelligence, personality, mental disorder inherited same as characteristics (eye colour, hair colour)

Often the work is carried out on pairs of twins. As monozygotic (MZ or identical) twins have 100% the same genes. The likelihood of them both having a behaviour/ disorder compared with the likelihood of dizygotic (DZ or non-identical) twins gives an indication of how much the behaviour may be genetic and this is called a concordance rate.

If MZ twins show a higher likelihood of sharing behaviours/ disorders than DZ twins then there is argued to be a genetic component. For example Gottesman (1991) stated that the concordance rate for schizophrenia in MZ (identical) twins was 48% and 17% for DZ (non-identical) twins. There is other research that shows differing concordance rates. Also there has never been a 100% concordance rate for MZ twins, suggesting that although there may be a genetic influence, it is not the sole reason for the behaviour/ disorder.

Question 40

what are the to terms which shows us how genetics can influence the development of an individual

Answer 40

geno type and phenotype

Question 41

what is a genotype

Answer 41

is an individual’s genetic make-up, which occurs at conception and provides the genetic code for how that individual will develop. Each individual is thought to have around 100,000 genes. The genotype dictates such characteristics as eye and hair colour. Each individual (apart from identical twins) has a genotype which is unique to them.

Question 42

what is a phenotype

Answer 42

Phenotype of an individual is the way the genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics. The expression of a genotype is inevitably influenced by environmental factors. For instance, identical adult twins usually look slightly different because one has exercised more or one has died their hair and so on. So despite having the same genes, the way identical twins’ genes are expressed (the phenotype) is different. This illustrates what many biological psychologists would accept that much of human behaviour depends upon an interaction between inherited factors (nature) and the environment (nurture).

Question 43

what is the neurochemical basis of behaviour about a01 of biological approach

Answer 43

Neurochemistry refers to the action of chemicals in the brain. It’s believed that much of our thoughts and behaviour relies on chemical transmission in the brain through nurotransmitters. For example Dopamine has been related to pleasure seeking and rewarding behaviour. An imbalance of these neurochemicals in the brain has been implicated as a possible cause of mental illness for example, low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin in OCD and Depression.

Question 44

what is the brain structure and function about - biological approach ao1

Answer 44

Biological Psychologists are also interested in how different parts of the brain appear to be implicated in different functions. (this is called Localisation of Function). For example, the left hemisphere has been implicated in language production (Broca’s area- left temporal lobe) and language comprehension (Wernike’s area- Left frontal lobe).

Question 45

what is the evolution and behaviour aspect of the biological approach a01

Answer 45

Biological psychologists believe that psychological characteristics such as intelligence and aggression were adaptive at the outset and therefore became part of the evolutionary process: That is, they once served an adaptive purpose and now persist in our behaviour even though they probably don’t serve that purpose in modern society anymore- for example the fight or flight response aided our survival to run from threat or get ready to attack. This behaviour still persists now even though our “stressors” are different in modern society.

Question 46

what is the emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 46

-combines Cognitive Psychology (the study of abstract mental processes) and Neuroscience (The study of the nervous system) in order to research biological structures that underpin cognitive processes.

• scientific study of influence of brain structures on mental processes, looks for a biological basis and how neurons explain the processes
• scanning techniques used fmri and pet scans, observe and describe neurological basis of mental processes

-focus expanded to include computer generated models that read the brain-led to development of mind mapping techniques (finger printing) future application to analyse brain wave patters in eye witness testinint

• helps scientists to map brain and understand how impairments can link to specific areas of the brain

Question 47

what is empiricism

Answer 47

Empiricism refers to the view that gathering data and evidence from experience (sensory information) is central to the scientific method, rather than simply relying upon our own viewpoints, which can be influenced by our desires. This experience is best gained through controlled experiments or observation. Laboratory experiments are considered the most empirically based research method because cause and effect can be established. By using empirical methods, it also ensures that researchers are basing their conclusions on experience rather than viewpoint, which makes it more objective and therefore more scientific

Question 48

what are the key features of science (5)

Answer 48

· Developing general laws

· Control

· Replicability

· Objectivity

· Falsification

Question 49

wundts approach and its role in the emergence of psychology as a science

did he have positive effect or negative?

Answer 49

positive effect
Introduced more scientific methods such as introducing more controlled conditions and standardised instructions. This increases replicability. However, Wundt was criticised for introspection being subjective.

Question 50

psychodynamics approach in the role of emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 50

Criticised for difficulty studying the unconscious mind (lack of falsification) and subjective nature of theory itself. Case study findings difficult to replicate and also to generalise.

Question 51

the behaviourist approach in the role of emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 51

Important developments in the emergence of Psychology as a science. Approach believes only observable behaviour should be studied so is objective and uses controlled experiments/ observations. Developed general laws (operant/ classical conditioning) which could lead to predictions about behaviour.

had a positive effect

Question 52

the humanistic approach and its role in the emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 52

Rejects the scientific method as Humanists believe it ignores the subjective experience of the individual. They do not produce any empirical evidence to support their approach

Question 53

the cognitive approach and its role in the emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 53

This approach explores the idea of internal processes in a much more scientific way than Wundt did earlier: it uses controlled experiments and makes predictions about behaviour based on general laws

Question 54

social learning theory and its role of emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 54

Provides a bridge between 2 of the most scientific approaches of Psychology: Behaviourism and Cognitive approach.

Question 55

the biological approach and its role of the emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 55

Highly scientific: Uses controlled methods, objective tests such as scans which reduce bias. Can be replicated. Developed from general laws of neurology, neurochemistry and genetics. However, evolutionary theory criticised for lack of falsifability.

Question 56

which 4 approaches had a positive effect on the role of emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 56

wundt
behaviourism
cognitive
biological

Question 57

key assumptions of the social learning theory

Answer 57

Social Learning theory is an extension of Behaviourism, it focuses on observable behaviour but does not see us being passively shaped by our environment without conscious thought.

The central tenet of this approach is that behaviour is learnt through the observing of the behaviour of others, if we observe their behaviour being rewarded we will imitate it – this is called vicarious reinforcement. Social learning theory (SLT) does not look solely at behaviour, it also considers cognitive processes.

involves
identification
vicarious reinforcement
role of mediational processes

Question 58

identification social learning theory

Answer 58

People (especially children) are much more likely to imitate the behaviour of people with whom they identify, called role models. This process is called modelling. A person becomes a role model if they are seen to possess similar characteristics to the observer and/or are physically attractive and have high status. Role models may not necessarily be physically present in the physical environment.

Question 59

vicarious reinforcement social learning theory

Answer 59

For indirect learning to take place an individual observes the behaviour of others. The learner may imitate this behaviour but, in general, imitation occurs if the behaviour is seen to be rewarded (reinforced) rather than punished, i.e. vicarious reinforcement occurs. Therefore, the learner observes a behaviour but most importantly observes the consequences of a behaviour.

Question 60

what is the role of mediational processes - social learning theory

Answer 60

SLT is often described as the bridge between traditional Behaviourism (CC and OC) and the cognitive approach, because it focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are involved in learning. These mental factors mediate (intervene) in the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired. Four mental or mediational processes in learning were identified by Bandura:

1. Attention – the extent to which we notice certain behaviours.
2. Retention – how well the behaviour is remembered.
3. Motor reproduction – the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour (do they have the skills to reproduce the behaviour)
4. Motivation – the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished.

The first two relate to the learning of behaviour and the last two to the performance of the behaviour. Unlike traditional behaviourism (CC and OC) the learning and performance of the behaviour do not need to happen at the same time; observed behaviours may be stored by the observer and reproduced at a later time.

These processes where captured in Bandura’s Bobo doll study. Children observed adult role models behave aggressively towards the bobo doll. When they were later allowed to play in the room with with Bobo doll the children faithfully imitated the behaviour they had seen. Greatest imitation was seen when the adult was rewarded for their aggression and when the adult was the same sex as the child.

Question 61

what is the study associated with social learning theory

Answer 61

BANDURA BOBO DOLL

Question 62

aim of bandura, ross and ross bobo doll study

Answer 62

devised an experiment in which participants would observe an adult behaving in a violent manner towards a Bobo doll toy. The toys, which were popular during the 1960s, feature an image of a clown and were designed to self-right when pushed over

Question 63

method of bandura bobo doll study social learning theory

Answer 63

Stanford University, where Bandura was then working in a teaching position as a professor. The participants - children who attended the Stanford University nursery - were divided into groups. Children in one of these groups were placed in a room in which they witnessed an adult hitting a Bobo doll in an aggressive manner. They were later given the opportunity to play with the dolls for themselves.

The researchers found that the group of children who had observed an adult behaving violently towards the toy were more likely to act aggressively towards it themselves when given the opportunity. These findings indicate that learning takes place not only when individuals are rewarded or punished for their own behavior, but also when they observe another person exhibiting violent behavior - a process called observational learning.

Question 64

what did rogers suggest

Answer 64

we have three ‘selves’ which need to integrate to achieve self-actualisation
include
self concept
ideal self
real self

Question 65

what is our self concent- rogers

Answer 65

the self that can be described as the self you feel you are. It is similar to self-esteem. If someone has low self-esteem, their self-concept will be poor and they will have a distorted view of how capable they are

Question 66

what is the ideal self

Answer 66

who we aim to be and become
low self esteem= poor self concept
distorted view of cabalities

Question 67

what is the real self

Answer 67

who we actually are, not who we think or wish we are

Question 68

what did rogers argue

Answer 68

for personal growth to be achieved, an individual’s self-concept – the way they see themselves, must be equivalent to, or have congruence with, their ideal self – the person they want to be. If too big a gap exists between the two ‘selves’ the person will experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation will not be possible due to the negative feelings of self-worth that arise from incongruence.

Question 69

what is congruence

Answer 69

(when your selves are the same as each other) is difficult to achieve and therefore it means that many people do not realise their full potential and do not become self-actualised

Question 70

what is an important past of achieving congruence - rogers

Answer 70

unconditional positive regard
someone has to be loved for who they are
can come from parents or other family membersm friends, partner
it is essential to reach full potential - self actualisation

Question 71

conditions of worth - rogers beliefs

Answer 71

Conditions of worth are requirements that the individual feels they need to meet to be loved, also called conditional positive regard. These can either be real or perceived by the individual. An example of this might be a child who feels they need to attain high grades in school for their parents to accept and love them. They feel that they will not be loved fully unless they meet that requirement. If a child feels these conditions of worth it will mean they do not experience unconditional positive regard and find self-actualisation even more difficult to attain.

Question 72

what is the influence of counselling psychology - humanistic approach work of rogers

Answer 72

One of the major influences of the humanistic approach is the therapy that has developed from the theory. Rogers developed his client centred therapy from his ideas, which states that the client-therapist relationship is important and that it is key that therapists can make their clients feel comfortable and accepted – so the client feels unconditional positive regard. If the client feels they are able to say whatever they want to the therapist, and that it will be accepted, then they will be able to be totally honest, which will help them realise potential barriers to becoming congruent, and through working with the therapist will remove those barriers. This client centred approach has een very successful and has influenced other therapies, such as CBT.

Question 73

aim of cognitive approach

Answer 73

The cognitive approach developed in the 1960s as a response to the behaviourists’ failure to acknowledge mental processes. The development of the first computers gave cognitive psychologists a metaphor for describing mental processes.

Question 74

what is the cognitive approach interested in

Answer 74

· Whilst the behavioural approach is interested in observable behaviour the cognitive approach does the opposite – it is interested in the internal workings of the mind and explains our behaviour through cognitive processes: thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, memory, perceptions – these are all cognitive processes.

· They use experimental procedures and methods to test behaviour in a scientific way

· They compare the mind to a computer – so it is a reductionist approach

· Computers and computer models are often used to explain how we think and behave – humans are treated as information processors (computers) and our behaviour is explained in terms of how information processing.

· Cognitive psychologists must make inferences about our mental processes since these cannot be directly observed: for example research into the primacy and recency effects of memory have led psychologists to theorise about separate short and long term memory stores, in turn this research has led to theoretical models about how memory works such as the multi-store model of memory.

Question 75

computer analogy - the cognitive approach

Answer 75

As computers developed in the 1950s and 60s the analogy between the computer and the human brain was formed. People began to see similarities between how a computer processes and stores information and how humans makes sense of information. Computer terms started to be used to explain human information processing:

· The brain is described as a processor (the thing that makes things happen)

· It has data input and data output

· Some parts of the brain form networks of interconnected parts

· Some parts can work sequentially (information travelling along one pathway) – this means that if a task is demanding then the task must be completed before another task can be tackled

· The brain can also, on some occasions, work in parallel – where information travels too and fro along lots of pathways at the same time. This is more likely when we are dealing with familiar tasks

Question 76

what is an inference the cognitive approach

Answer 76

Inference: This is where a Cognitive Psychologist draws a conclusion about how a mental process operates based on an observed behaviour/finding.

Question 77

role of a schema - cognitive approach

Answer 77

packages of info about objects, actions and concepts which change through experience
helps us to organise and interpret information and make predictions, cognitive shortcuts to help us make sense of information efficiently

have schemas about
- ourself
-events
-roles

Question 78

name three things we have schemas about and describe them- cognitive approach

Answer 78

We have schemas about our self – self schemas can affect how we act in different situations. Eg if our self schema is that we are shy we might not strike up conversations with people we don’t know at the bus stop, but if our self schema is that we can talk the hind legs off a donkey then we might!

We have schemas about events – these are also called scripts eg we have a restaurant schema which contains information about what we do when we eat at a restaurant, a sequence of events linked to this particular event

We have schemas about roles – these give us ideas about what to expect from people when they are performing these roles eg teachers or doctors

Question 79

what is the problem with schemas

Answer 79

Schemas can however be problematic: sometimes they can stop people from learning new information. For example prejudice and stereotypes can be an outcome of schemas. A schema can hold expectations about certain groups of people which can be based on inaccurate assumptions. This happens because when we process consistent information that is assimilated into the schema however when we receive inconsistent information because that would require us changing our schema of that group (accommodation) when tend to ignore it because its easier.

Question 80

definition of schema

Answer 80

Schema: A schema is mental framework of expectations and beliefs that we build up from our early experiences.