Approaches in Psychology COPY Flashcards

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1
Q

Definition of psychology.

A

The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context.

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2
Q

The behaviourist approach - assumptions.

A

> Primarily concerned with observable behaviour
Psychology as a science
When born, the mind is a blank slate.
Little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals.
Behaviour is a result of a stimulus - response
All behaviour is learnt from the environment

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3
Q

The behaviourist approach - key concepts.

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> Stimulus - anything, internal or external, that brings about a response
Response - any reaction in the presence of the stimulus
Reinforcement - the process by which a response is strengthened

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4
Q

The behaviourist approach - classical conditioning.

A

> Pavlov was the first to describe this process of learning, by testing it on animals
This is learning by association - refers to the conditioning of reflexes - involves associating a new stimulus with an innate bodily reflex
Pairing a response naturally caused by one stimulus with another, previously neutral stimulus.
Later research to support the term in relation to humans comes from the Little Albert case study - Watson and Rayner.

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5
Q

The behaviourist approach - operant conditioning.

A

> B.F. Skinner claimed that all behaviour is learnt as a result of consequences in our environment
Learning through the consequences (positive and negative) of behavioural responses.
Concerned with the use of consequences in order to modify and shape behaviour.
Skinner tested this learning process on animals.

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6
Q

The behaviourist approach - positive reinforcement.

A

Increases the likelihood of a response occurring because it involves a reward for the behaviour.

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7
Q

The behaviourist approach - negative reinforcement.

A

Increases the likelihood of a response occurring because it involves the removal of, or escaping from, unpleasant consequences (e.g. it leads to stopping or avoiding an electric shock)

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8
Q

The behaviourist approach - positive punishment.

A

The consequence is receiving something unpleasant which decreases the probability of the behaviour being repeated (e.g. the behaviour leads to an electric shock or a smack)

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9
Q

The behaviourist approach - negative punishment.

A

The consequence is removing something desirable and decreases probability of the behaviour being repeated.

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10
Q

The behaviourist approach - strengths of the approach.

A

> Scientific
Influences all areas of psychology.
Replicable - high reliability
Mainly quantitative data - easy to analyse.
Real world application
Useful applications to education, child rearing (i.e. super nanny).
Provides strong counter-arguments to the nature side of the ‘nature-nurture’ debate.

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11
Q

The behaviourist approach - limitations of the approach.

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> Many forms of learning cannot be satisfactorily explained by classical and operant conditioning.
Ignores important mental processes involved in learning
Reductionist - only takes nurture into account
Deterministic - ignores free will
Lack of ecological validity due to highly controlled experiments → issues with generalisability
Ethical issues
Lack of qualitative data - no thoughts or feelings known
Much data has been obtained from species such as rats, dogs and pigeons but the relevance of these findings to human behaviour is dubious.

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12
Q

Social Learning Theory

A

> Proposed by Albert Bandura
A development of the behaviourist approach
Classical conditioning cannot account for all human learning.
Joined behaviourism and the cognitive approach to form social learning theory.

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13
Q

Social Learning Theory - Similarities to behaviourist and cognitive approach

A
Behaviourist approach: 
     Role of reinforcement
     Behaviour learnt
Cognitive approach:
     Role of cognitive processes
     Focus on human behaviour rather than animal
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14
Q

Social Learning Theory - Differences from behaviourist and cognitive approach

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Behaviourist approach:
Importance of expectancy
SLT looks forward while behaviourism looks backwards
Distinction between learning and performance in SLT, while they are the same for behaviourism
Animals not seen as same as humans in SLT
Cognitive approach:
Observational learning not part of the cognitive approach
Cognitive approach focuses more on cognitive processes, e.g. schemas
SLT still tends to focus on external behaviour, while cognitive approach is interested in internal processes

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15
Q

Social Learning Theory - Assumptions

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> Combines principles from both the behaviourist and cognitive approach.
Concerned with human other than animal behaviour.
Sees people as manipulators of their environment.
Learning occurs through the observation of role models.

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16
Q

Social Learning Theory - Models/ Modelling

A

Two types of models:
Live model - people who are present in our environment
Symbolic models – people who are present in the media

There must be: attention (noticing the behaviour), retention (remembering the behaviour), reproduction (physically possible), motivation (a reason to copy)

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17
Q

Social Learning Theory - Identification

A

When an individual adopts an attitude or behaviour in line with their role model.

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18
Q

Social Learning Theory - Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment.

A

> Bandura recorded the behaviour of young children who had watched an adult behave in an aggressive way towards a bobo doll.
Shows us that mediating cognitive factors must be intervening between observation and behaviour.

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19
Q

Social Learning Theory - On-going development of behaviour

A

Behaviour displayed by role model considered to be worth imitating – identification.
There needs to be self-efficacy – the belief that behaviour can be imitated.
If the behaviour is punished it won’t be reinforced.
Provided the outcomes are positive - becomes part of the person’s repertoire of behaviours.

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20
Q

Social Learning Theory - Strengths

A

> Considers the role of cognitive factors in learning.
Based on laboratory experiments (scientific).
Less deterministic and reductionist than other approaches
Explains the development of culture.
Explains the learning of complex behaviours such as aggression
Successfully applied to many areas of psychology

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21
Q

Social Learning Theory - Applications of approach - anxiety disorder

A

Modelling to treat disorders, e.g. showing a model interacting happily with a phobic object. A vicarious association is made between the positive feelings demonstrated and the object.

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22
Q

Social Learning Theory - Applications of approach - Forensic Psychology

A

Social skills training may include the use of modelling to provide offenders with appropriate skills in social interactions to avoid behaviour that will get them into trouble.

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23
Q

Social Learning Theory - Applications of approach - Gender Development

A

Social learning theorists see gender-related behaviour as acquired by reinforcement, modelling and imitation.

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24
Q

Social Learning Theory - Applications of approach - Aggression

A

Aggression results from observational learning. An influential model who behaves in an aggressive way and is seen to be rewarded for such behaviour may be imitated by others.

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25
Q

Social Learning Theory - Limitations of the approach

A

> Ignores the role of biology.
Concentrates mostly on external behaviour.
Does not fully explain individual differences
Does not account for all behaviour
Lab experiments are artificial, in particular the are criticism of the Bobo doll study which is the basis of the theory.
Not good at explaining learning of abstract ideas.

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26
Q

The Cognitive Approach

A

> Cognition means ‘knowing’
Cognitive processes refer to the way in which knowledge is gained, used and retained.
Cognitive psychologists explain all behaviour in terms of thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and study how these direct our behaviour.

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27
Q

The Cognitive Approach - Assumptions of the approach

A

> Reaction against the behaviourist stimulus-response approach.
Events within a person must be studied for behaviour to be fully understood.
It is possible to study internal mental processes in an objective way
Insight into mental processes may be inferred from behaviour.
Concerned with how thinking shapes our behaviour.

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28
Q

The Cognitive Approach - Internal Mental Process

A

> Humans seen as information processors.
Main concern is how information received from our senses is processed by the brain and how this processing directs how we behave.
Looks at how various cognitive functions work together to help us make sense of the world.

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29
Q

The Cognitive Approach - Mental processes studied by cognitive psychologists

A
>perception
>attention
>memory
>language
>thinking
>problem solving
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30
Q

The Cognitive Approach - Schemata

A

> Part of the mental process.
Mental structures that represent an aspect of the world.
Help us to make sense of the world, by providing shortcuts to identifying things that we come across (building blocks of knowledge).

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31
Q

The Cognitive Approach - theoretical and computer models

A

Cognitive psychologists often compare the human mind to a computer. It compares how we take information (input) store it or change it (process) and then recall it when necessary (output).

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32
Q

The Cognitive Approach - Cognitive models

A
>Use the results of their research to develop models of how people process information
>Infer mental processes from comparisons between the information (input) a person receives and
the behaviour (output) they produce
>Such computational models of the mind have proved useful in the development of ‘thinking machines’ or
artificial intelligence.
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33
Q

Psychology is a science

A

Cognitive psychologists have a very scientific approach towards studying behaviour.
Although they are concerned with the inner workings of the mind (which cannot be directly observed), scientific and controlled experiments allow psychologists to infer what is happening.

34
Q

Psychology is a science - cognitive development

A

Piaget proposed stages of cognitive development which reflect the increasing sophistication of children’s thinking. The information-processing approach sees children’s minds as computers that gradually develop in processing ability.

35
Q

Psychology is a science - mood disorders

A

Beck’s model of depression sees faulty thinking as the cause of depression. Ellis believes emotional and behavioural disorders develop because of irrational beliefs and thoughts

36
Q

Psychology is a science - memory

A

Models of memory have helped us to understand these cognitive processes further. Knowledge of how memory works has been applied to interviewing witnesses e.g. the cognitive interview

37
Q

Psychology is a science - education

A

Information–processing theory has been applied to improve educational techniques

38
Q

Psychology is a science - therapy

A

For example, Ellis’ rational emotive therapy (RET) to restructure faulty thinking and perceptions in depression.

39
Q

Psychology is a science - the emergence of cognitive neuroscience

A

> Study many different aspects of human cognition, including the neural processes underlying memory, attention, perception and awareness.
Interested in social cognition, the brain regions involved when we interact with others.
Interested in how impairments in these regions may characterise different psychological conditions.

40
Q

Psychology is a science - how are these biological structures investigated

A

> In last 20 years, with advances in brain imaging techniques, scientists have been able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes
Possible due to the development of brain imaging techniques such as MRI and PET scans
As a result of the use of sophisticated scanning techniques alongside the experimental methods, cognitive neuroscience is rapidly becoming the dominant paradigm in modern psychology.

41
Q

cognitive approach- stengths

A

> Scientific, based on carefully controlled research.
Computer models helps us to understand unobservable mental processes
Less deterministic than other approaches - allows for individuals to think before responding to the stimulus
Many useful applications
Successfully integrated into other approaches in order to provide a more comprehensive understanding of some behaviours

42
Q

cognitive approach - limitations

A

> The metaphor of ‘man as machine’ is seen as simplistic and reductionist, ignoring emotional, motivational and social factors in human behaviour
The emphasis on laboratory experiments means that the findings may not reflect everyday life – lacking in ecological validity
The approach explains how cognitive processes happen but tends to ignore why

43
Q

The Biological Approach

A

> The biological approach combines psychology and biology to provide *physiological explanations for human behaviour.
Biological psychology tries to explain how we think, feel and behave in terms of physical factors within the body

44
Q

The Biological Approach - basic assumptions

A

> Everything psychological is at first biological.
Investigates how biological structures and processes impact behaviour.
Genes affect behaviour and influence individual
psychological differences between people.
Evolutionary psychology considers genetic influences in common behaviours.
Psychologists should study the brain, nervous system and other biological systems, e.g. hormones, chemicals acting on the brain.
The mind lives in the brain (in contrast to the cognitive
approach sees mental processes of the mind as being separate from the physical brain)

45
Q

The Biological Approach - genetic basis of behaviour

A

Psychologists are interested in trying to determine and provide evidence for the extent to which behaviours, or a characteristic such as intelligence, are the product of inheritance (genes), or environmental influences.

46
Q

The Biological Approach - methods of investigating genetic basis of behaviour

A
There are different methods for investigating the extent to which psychological characteristics are affected by inheritance from parents and evolution genetic basis of behaviour:
>twin studies
>family studies
>adoption studies
>selective breeding
47
Q

The Biological Approach - twin studies

A

> Studying twins in order to investigate the genetic basis of behaviour.
Monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ)
Should be 100% concordance rates between MZ twins if a particular characteristic/trait is a genetic one. DZ twins will show lower concordance rates. Comparisons between twins raised together and twins raised apart.

48
Q

The Biological Approach - family studies

A

> 1869 - Francis Galton ‘…all natural abilities are inherited’
This is a simplistic viewpoint
Galton later had to agree that resemblance between family relatives could be a result of both genes and shared environment.
With alcoholism, there is a suggestion of a biological predisposition to the addiction.

49
Q

The Biological Approach - adoption studies

A

These studies involve comparing a trait or characteristic between adopted children and their biological or adoptive parents.

50
Q

The Biological Approach - selective breeding

A

Artificially selecting male and female animals for a particular trait. These animals are then put together to breed and produce offspring. Selective breeding has been used to demonstrate how a number of behavioural characteristics may have a genetic basis. e.g. ‘maze bright’ rats.

51
Q

The Biological Approach - genetic basis of behaviour findings

A

> Twin, family, and adoption studies suggest that certain behaviours are genetically determined.
Research has shown that the environment can play more of a role in determining behaviour than genetics.
Selective breeding studies have demonstrated how a number of behavioural characteristics can have a genetic basis.

52
Q

The Biological Approach - genotype and phenotype

A

> The basic units of heredity are called genes.
Genes function in pairs and the recombination of genes from parents to offspring provides the basis for genetic variability.
Genes only determine the potential for characteristics (genotype). The observable characteristics of an individual (phenotype) depend on the interaction of genetic and environmental factors.

53
Q

The Biological Approach - genotype

A

The actual set of genes an individual has, or is made up of, is a genotype. The genetic material is made up of DNA, for sexually reproducing organisms, which are given by the sperm and egg of the parents.

54
Q

The Biological Approach - phenotype

A

An individual’s anatomical features or observed traits, such as behavioural and physical characteristics fall under an individual’s phenotype. These behavioural characteristics and physical attributes are what determines an individual’s ability to reproduce and survive in the environment.

55
Q

The Biological Approach - the difference between genotype and phenotype

A

The genotype is the genetic programming that provides the phenotype. To a large extent, an individual’s phenotype is determined by its genotype. However, genes are only part of the equation. Genotype+environment = phenotype.

56
Q

The Biological Approach - twins

A

> Identical twins are another good example of the interaction between inheritance (genotype) and
environment.
They have the same genetic makeup and they look alike, but they possess different phenotypes. Identical twins have differences that allow those who are close to them to tell them apart. Also, their fingerprints are different.
Twins are genetically the same - any differences you may see between them are due to differences in their experience or environment.

57
Q

The Biological Approach - recessive and dominant genes

A

A gene can be recessive or dominant. A recessive gene only shows if the individual has two copies of the recessive gene. For example, the gene for blue eyes is recessive. You need two copies of the gene to have blue eyes. A dominant gene always shows, even if the individual only has one copy of the gene. For
example, the gene for brown eyes is dominant. You only need one copy of the gene to have brown eyes.

58
Q

The Biological Approach - heterozygous and homozygous genes

A

> heterozygous – the genotype consists of two different genes, for example Bb.
homozygous - the genotype consists of two genes that are the same, for example BB.

59
Q

The Biological Approach - evolution and behaviour

A

Evolution: the changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations. Charles Darwin emphasised two main concepts in evolutionary theory: natural selection sexual selection

60
Q

The Biological Approach - natural selection

A

Animals with particular traits that provide them with an advantage are more likely to survive and reproduce thereby passing on their ‘adaptive traits’ to their offspring. These behaviours need to adapt to the environment that the animal is living in which is dependent on three principles:
>the principle of diversity - the variety within a species.
>the principle of interaction - how this variety of species adapt and fit in with the environment
>the principle of differential amplification - those who adapt to their environment will reproduce and those that do not wont

61
Q

The Biological Approach - sexual selection

A

Males have an abundance of sperm and can reproduce with as many females as they want. Women are limited by the amount of eggs she produces and the fact that she has to carry the baby for 9 months and then raise it till the age of 18. Females therefore will be more particular about who fathers their children due to the investment they have to make.

62
Q

The Biological Approach - research methods

A

> The biological approach draws on concepts from the hard sciences and research tends to be highly scientific in nature.
The most common methods include laboratory experiments and observations.
Objective brain recording and scanning techniques are also used.

63
Q

The Biological Approach - strengths of the approach

A

> It is a scientific approach. This suggests that we can find cause and effect relationships of both physiology and behaviour.
Scientific approach lends credence to study of psychology
Impact of biology on behaviour can lead to treatment and intervention to those suffering
Understanding how an abnormal brain works can shed light on normal brain functioning
Measurements can be objective as it can be performed by machines which have no vested interest in the outcome

64
Q

The Biological Approach - limitations of the approach

A

> Deterministic and reductionist
Biological approach ignores the role of the environment etc. it should be used in combination which is known as the biosocial approach.
Research may focus on rare conditions that have little impact on the everyday lives of most people
Complex machinery operated by humans and therefore measurements could be subject to human error.
Correlations frequently employed – cannot determine cause and effect.
Small or restricted samples make findings difficult to generalise Laboratory experiments lack ecological validity.

65
Q

The Psychodynamic Approach - key assumptions

A

> Events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality.
Events that occur in childhood can remain in the unconscious, and cause problems as adults.
Freud proposed that all children go through the same five stages of development.

66
Q

The Psychodynamic Approach - the theory of the unconscious

A

> Conscious thoughts are those that we are aware of. Every day our behaviour is governed by conscious thoughts
Preconscious thoughts are those that we can become aware of, although we are not aware of them at the moment. At the time we are not aware of them eg memories that seem to be forgotten but can be recalled when we focus on them.
Unconscious wishes and desires are those we cannot access directly. They influence our decision-making and motivations but we are not aware of them.
These unconscious ‘thoughts’ make up a great deal of our mind and have a powerful (but unknown) influence on what we do. We repress these unconscious thoughts and use energy to do

67
Q

The Psychodynamic Approach - structure of the personality

A

> ID - Represents our desires and wishes. Biological urges guide us, and as we are warm, fed and not thirsty, the psychodynamic approach tends to focus on sexual urges, as they are the ones most likely to be repressed.
EGO - Represents the reality principle. The part of our personality that makes decisions based on the demands of the id and the restrictions from the superego.
Superego - Includes moral principles and ideas of what we ought to be like. We learn these

68
Q

The Psychodynamic Approach - psychosexual stages

A

Freud argued that children pass through a number of psychosexual stages. Conflicts that arise during these stages can affect later behaviour.

69
Q

The Psychodynamic Approach - psychosexual stages - first stage

A

> The Oral Stage (0-2 years) - When pleasure is focused on the mouth.
The id is in control and the ego and the superego have not yet developed, so the baby is demanding.
If fixated at the oral stage (having had problems in development), then a person will be passive and dependant and might show such behaviours as smoking.

70
Q

The Psychodynamic Approach - psychosexual stages - second stage

A

> The Anal Stage (2-3 years) - Where pleasure is focused on the anus.
Potty training becomes important.
If fixated on the anal stage a person will tend to have a ‘holding back’ (anally retentive) character and may display behaviours such as excessive tidiness or meanness.
An anally expulsive character is also possible.

71
Q

The Psychodynamic Approach - psychosexual stages - third stage (boys)

A

> The Phallic Stage (4-5 years) - Where a boy develops sexual feelings for his mother, and becomes jealous of his father.
The boy thinks his father knows this, and so he fears his father and develops castration anxiety.
By hating his father, but by fearing him too, the boy experiences strong emotions.
Defence mechanisms come into play to repress these strong unconscious desires; to resolve the problem, the boy identifies with (becomes) his father, so that he can stop hating and fearing him.
This is the Oedipus complex.

72
Q

The Psychodynamic Approach - psychosexual stages - third stage (girls)

A

> Girls have sexual feelings towards their fathers and develop penis envy.
They blame their mother for not having a penis and identify with their mothers to overcome these, replacing their desire for a penis with a desire for a baby.
This is the Electra complex, but was not focused on as much as the Oedipus complex for boys.

73
Q

The Psychodynamic Approach - psychosexual stages - fifth stage

A

> The Latent Stage (5 years - puberty) - Where boys play with boys and girls play with girls.
The superego develops in the phallic stage (where boys and girls are finding out about right and wrong).
The latent stage is not the most interesting for the development of personality according to this approach.
It could be said that not much happens.

74
Q

The Psychodynamic Approach - psychosexual stages -sixth stage

A

> The Genital Stage (Puberty) - What happens here depends on how the individual has worked through the previous stages.
If there are no problems or fixations from early childhood, the child develops feelings for the opposite sex.
Anxieties reappear though, as the feelings experienced at the Oedipus stage can resurface.

75
Q

The Psychodynamic Approach - defence mechanisms that help control conflict

A

The conflicts of the id and superego lead to anxiety. The ego protects itself against anxiety using defence mechanisms which include repression. Defence mechanisms help to reduce anxiety but don’t resolve deep psychological problems.

76
Q

The Psychodynamic Approach - defence mechanisms that help control conflict - repression

A

Forgetting an unpleasant memory or the strong emotion associated with it.

77
Q

The Psychodynamic Approach - defence mechanisms that help control conflict - denial

A

Refusal to admit an unpleasant fact.

78
Q

The Psychodynamic Approach - defence mechanisms that help control conflict - displacement

A

Shifting an emotion directed at one person towards another object/person.

79
Q

The Psychodynamic Approach - The Psychodynamic Approach - assumptions/causes. +

A

> Psychological factors - Freud was the first to emphasise the importance of psychological factors causing abnormal behaviour.
Importance of childhood - most psychologists accept that childhood is important in determining adult behaviour, however this was over-emphasised in the original model. >Modern psychodynamic practice reflects this
Importance of the subconscious - many people agree that the unconscious does affect behaviour
Influential theory - Freud remains the best known psychologist of all time and psychoanalysis the most influential theory. His ideas have been represented in various media and his terminology adopted in everyday language.

80
Q

The Psychodynamic Approach - The Psychodynamic Approach - assumptions/causes. -

A

> Problems validating theory - impossible to scientifically test the model. Evidence remains variable and it can be very subjective.
Poor methodology - The dominant use of case studies in psychodynamic therapy is unscientific, subjective and biased. Also Freud’s main client base were mainly middle-class, Viennese women.
Over-emphasis on sexual factors - Freud believed that sexual factors were a major cause of abnormal behaviour, nowadays we recognise other factors like social relationships as important. Freud’s ideas on sexual repression may be outdated in today’s more permissive society
Blame parents - good for the individual but is damaging for the parent.