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A2 - Biopsychology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Neuroplasticity?

A

The Brain’s ability to change and adapt as a result of experience and new learning

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2
Q

What is Functional recovery?

A

The Brain’s ability to redistribute or transfer function to an undamaged area of brain after damage through trauma.

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3
Q

At what age do you have the largest amount of neural connections you will ever have in your life?

A

2-3 years old

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4
Q

What is Synaptic Pruning?

A

The loss of connections we don’t use in the brain, and the strengthening of those we use regularly

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5
Q

What did Maguire et al (2000) discover?

A

London Taxi Drivers have significantly more volume in their posterior hippocampus than controls. This area is associated with navigation.

Cab drivers must pass a test about navigation in order to get a licence, so must learn to navigate London.

Learning affects the structure of the brain.

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6
Q

What is a problem with the validity of Maguire’s study?

A

There is no evidence to show that learning routes of London increased grey matter, it may be that people with a larger hippocampus are more likely to become cab drivers

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7
Q

What did Draginski (2006) find about student’s brains before and after exams.

A

Medical students had brains scanned 3 months before and after exams. Learning induced changes seen in the posterior hippocampus and the parietal cortex

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8
Q

What is spontaneous recovery?

A

The recovery seen in the brain soon after trauma

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9
Q

Why might rehabilitation be more important a while after trauma, rather than straight away?

A

The rate of functional recovery slows, the longer after the trauma it has been, so rehabilitation may be needed to help increase recovery.

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10
Q

Which study required participants to play Super Mario to test brain plasticity?

A

Kuhn (2014)

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11
Q

How often did participants play Super Mario in Kuhn (2014)?

A

30 minutes every day for 2 months

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12
Q

What were the results of Kuhn’s 2014 study?

A

Those in the Super Mario group had more grey matter in their cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum

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13
Q

What were participants asked to do in Davidson (2004)

A

Participants were asked to meditate, whilst their gamma wave activity was monitored.

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14
Q

What were the results of Davidson et al (2004)?

A

Both groups showed greater activation of gamma waves (shown to co-ordinate brain activity) whilst meditating.

The monks showed a far greater increase in gamma wave activation in the Tibetan monks than the students.

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15
Q

What can be concluded from Davidson et al (2004)?

A

Meditation not only makes short term changes in the working of the brain, but may also produce more permanent changes to the brain. Particularly as the Tibetan monks had far more gamma wave activity than the control group even BEFORE the meditation

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16
Q

Name 2 mechanisms for functional recovery after trauma.

A

Neuronal Unmasking

Stem Cells

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17
Q

What is a “dormant synapse”?

A

A synapse which is not in use when a person is in good health, but can act as a cover for those lost or damaged as a result of trauma.

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18
Q

Which method of Functional Recovery uses Dormant Synapses?

A

Neuronal Unmasking

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19
Q

What are the two further features of Neuronal Unmasking?

A

Axon Sprouting

Recruitment of Homologous areasin the opposite hemisphere

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20
Q

What is Axon Sprouting?

A

An Axon is an ‘arm’ of a nerve cell, axon sprouting is where new axons develop to connect to undamaged areas of the brain.

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21
Q

What is Recruitment of Homologous areas?

A

This is where functions that were previously managed by one hemisphere of the brain, are shifted to areas on the other half of the brain that are structurally similar.

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22
Q

What are the three ‘uses’ of stem cells in functional recovery?

A

Direct Implants

Rescue Implants

Neural Networks

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23
Q

What does a direct implant of stem cells do?

A

They replace the damaged cells

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24
Q

What do Rescue Implant Stem Cells do?

A

They release growth hormones to ‘repair’ the damaged cells

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25
Q

What do ‘Neural Network’ stem cells do?

A

These stem cells form a network linking the damaged cells to undamaged cells to crate functional recovery

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26
Q

List some common types of Brain Trauma (4 types)

A

Physical Trauma, eg blows and missile wounds to the skull and brain

Cerebral Haemorrhage, when a blood vessel in the brain bursts

Cerebral Ischaemia, when a blood vessel is blocked either by a blood clot or fatty deposits

Viral or Bacterial Infections, these can destroy brain tissue, eg Meningitis

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27
Q

Why might there often be significant recovery from brain trauma in the first days or weeks of recovery?

A

Besides damaging neurons, Brain trauma can lead to swelling of brain tissue, which can affect behaviour. This swelling dies down within days and weeks and is responsible for the fast spurt of recovery.

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28
Q

What can growth of new neurons be known as?

A

Neurogenesis

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29
Q

How might a patient show recovery, without any functional recovery in the brain?

A

Behaviour changes to compensate for the damage, such as writing things down to combat amnesia.

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30
Q

What are 3 possible treatments for brain trauma?

A

Drugs, utilising nerve growth factor (NGF)
Neuronal transplantation, a promising line of research in implanting stem cells to damaged areas
Rehabilitation and brain reorganisation. We already know that practicing skills alters brain organisation, therapies that involve practicing a skill affected by brain damage might lead to recovery.

All possible treatments,only rehabilitation actually in use.

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31
Q

Where is Wernicke’s area in the brain?

A

The left temporal lobe

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32
Q

Where is Broca’s area of the Brain?

A

The left frontal lobe

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33
Q

Where is the motor cortex?

A

The back of the frontal lobe

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34
Q

Where is the somatosensory cortex

A

The front of the parietal lobe

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35
Q

How are the parts of the somatosensory and motor cortex organised?

A

In the same logic as the body, the area of the motor cortex for the left foot is found next to the area for the left toes

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36
Q

Where is the visual area found in the brain?

A

n the occipital lobe

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37
Q

What theory contradicts the localisation of function theory, and existed before?

A

The holistic theory, that all parts of the brain were used for thought and action

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38
Q

What side of the body does the right motor cortex control?

A

The left.

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39
Q

What side of the brain are the Language centres found?

A

The left

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40
Q

What was the name given to Broca’s patient in his famous study?

A

Tan, as all he could say was ‘tan’

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41
Q

If you have Broca’s Aphasia, what can you NOT do?

A

Produce speech

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42
Q

Name three strengths of the localisation of function theory (evidence that supports it)

A

Support from aphasia cases
Support from brain scanning techniques
Support from case studies

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43
Q

What is a problem with using case studies to support localisation of function theory?

A

Case studies have very low population validity, it may be that differences are simply due to individual differences

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44
Q

Why does Paulesu’s memory study (from AS) support localisation of function?

A

The study shows that different parts of the brain are used for different functions of memory

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45
Q

What theory of the brain does the case study of Phineas Gage (the man with the pole through his head) support?

A

Localisation of function, as the pole destroyed his temporal lobe and his mood was changed

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46
Q

Why does Neuroplasticity go against localisation of function

A

If people can recover function despite damage to specific areas to the brain, other areas of the brain must be able to control the functions previously controlled by the damaged areas.

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47
Q

What is equipotentiality?

A

The view that motor and sensory functions are localised, but higher thoughts, like cognitive reasoning and empathy are not

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48
Q

Explain an argument against localisation, other than equipotentiality.

A

Communication, rather than localisation. Connections between areas of the brain are more important than the areas themselves

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49
Q

Give an example of communication being more important than localisation of brain function

A

French Neurologist Dejerine had a case study who’s Wernicke’s area and visual cortex were in tact, but the connection was damaged, so they couldn’t read

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50
Q

Explain the problem of individual differences in localisation of function.

A

There are individual differences between each person’s brain, meaning it’s hard to make a universal theory

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51
Q

What did Harasty find about gender differences in function localisation?

A

Men and women, have different sized Broca’s area, women’s are bigger on average.

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52
Q

When can the idea of hemispheric lateralisation be traced back to?

A

The early 1800s, research by Marc Dax

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53
Q

What does the term lateralisation refer to?

A

The fact that the two hemispheres are not exactly identical, and each hemisphere has functional specialisms

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54
Q

Which side of the brain is associated with language functions?

A

The Left

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55
Q

Which side of the brain has been found to excel at visual-motor tasks?

A

The Right

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56
Q

Which side of the brain controls the left side of the body

A

The right

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57
Q

Which side of the brain controls the right side of the body?

A

The left

58
Q

Which side of the brain is responsible for face recognition?

A

The right

59
Q

What tissues connect the two hemispheres of the brain?

A

A bundle of nerve fibres called the Corpus Collosum

60
Q

What treatment has been used to treat severe epilepsy?

A

Surgery to sever the Corpus Collosum

61
Q

What are patients who underwent the severing of the Corpus Collosum referred to as?

A

“Split-Brain Patients”

62
Q

Who were the first people to study the capabilities of Split Brain Patients?

A

Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga

63
Q

If an image is presented to the left visual field, what would the split brain patient say they had seen?

A

Nothing

64
Q

If an image of a cat was presented to the left visual field, and a dog to the right, what would the split brain patients say they had seen?

A

A dog, they would process the dog through the language centre but not the cat

65
Q

What were the split brain patients asked to do at the start of Sperry and Gazzaniga’s experiments?

A

They had to sit in front of a screen, and focus on a cross in the centre, whilst images flash up on either side of the cross

66
Q

If an image of a key appeared on the right visual field, and a ring on the left, which object would the patients choose from, by feel?

A

The ring, as that image was processed by the right hemisphere

67
Q

What are the advantages of hemispheric lateralisation?

A

It is theorised it increases neural processing capacity, but there is little empirical evidence to support this

68
Q

What does Gazzaniga (1998) suggest about some early split brain discoveries

A

That they have been disconfirmed by more recent research, such as case studies that show patients with the ability to speak out of the right hemisphere

69
Q

What are the limitations of split brain research?

A

Its a rare procedure so research has low population validity
Its only done on people who already are diagnosed with a brain disorder, and the procedure is not always completely successful

70
Q

How long does a circadian rhythm last?

A

Around a day, 24 hours

71
Q

What does circadian mean?

Once every 24 hours

A

Once every 24 hours

72
Q

Name three circadian rhythms

A

The Sleep-Wake Cycle
Core Body Temperature
Hormone Production

73
Q

What mechanism in the Hypothalamus is key to circadian rhythms?

A

The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

74
Q

Can the SCN run independently of the environment?

A

Yes, but it requires external cues to remain synchronised to the rest of the world

75
Q

What is an Endogenous Pacemaker?

A

Mechanisms within the body that govern the internal biological rhythms

76
Q

What is an Exogenous Zeitgeber?

A

an environmental cue, such as light, that helps to regulate the biological clock in an organism

77
Q

Which key study involved sleeping in a cave with only artificial lighting for months on end?

A

Michael Siffre’s Case Study (1962, stayed in a cave in the alps for 61 days)

78
Q

What were the results of Michael Siffre’s case studies

A

He found that his natural rhythm settled to somewhere around 24 hours, but with some dramatic variations

79
Q

Identify 2 flaws with Siffre’s studies

A
  1. Only one man - poor population validity

Used artificial light, further studies suggest this can affect circadian rhythms, so poor internal validity

80
Q

Why might Siffre’s use of artificial light in his study make the results invalid?

A

Some studies, such as Czeisler et al, found that it was possible to adjust someone’s circadian rhythm from 22 to 28 hours, using dim lighting. This means the artificial light in Siffre’s study might have adjusted his circadian rhythm, rending the results invalid.

81
Q

What real life applications could research on circadian rhythms have?

A

Practical applications to shift work. A better understanding of the adverse effects of night shifts. economic implications in terms of employee productivity

82
Q

What is a problem with using case studies as evidence for the sleep/wake cycle?

A

Very low population validity, does not take into account individual differences, so limited generalisation

83
Q

Very low population validity, does not take into account individual differences, so limited generalisation

A

Body temperature

Hormone Production

84
Q

Briefly outline the circadian rhythm of body temperature

A

At its lowest (36 degrees) around 4:30 am
At its highest (38 degrees) at 6pm
Body temp will lower as preparing to sleep, and rise before 4.30 to wake you. Dip in temperature between 2-4pm, hence tiredness after lunchtime

85
Q

Briefly describe the circadian rhythm of hormone production

A

Melatonin makes you feel sleepy.
Increases before bed time, and production is inhibited by light, so decreases as the day progresses and there is more light.
Cortisol increases alertness.
This reaches peak around 6am, ready to wake up, and is lowest around midnight, readying for sleep.

86
Q

What did Duffy et al (2001) find about individual differences in circadian rhythms?

A

Different people’s rhythms reach their onsets at different times. Eg “morning people” prefer to rise early and go to bed early (6am-10pm)

87
Q

What did Czeisler et al (1999) find out about individual differences in circadian rhythms?

A

He found that rhythms can vary between 13 hours and 65 hours in different people

88
Q

What did Buhr et al find out about the effect of temperature on circadian rhythms?

A

That temperature has a larger impact over whether or not your organs and tissues in your body are active or inactive, therefore providing more control over circadian rhythms

89
Q

What did Hughes (1977) find about cortisol?

A

Researchers stationed at the British Antarctic station for 3 months of darkness, had shifted cortisol rhythms, the highest point being at noon rather than as they woke
However, the cortisol production of those native to the area were unchanged

90
Q

Give an example of an endogenous pacemaker

A

The Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

91
Q

What is the SCN?

A

The primary pacemaker in the brain, located in the hypothalamus. It has its own internal time management system based on a complex cellular process.
It can be reset by the use or absense of light

92
Q

How does light affect the SCN?

A

A third type of light receptor in the retina detects the brightness of the light, which affects the SCN

93
Q

Name 2 exogenous zeitgebers

A

Light

Social Cues

94
Q

What did Klein and Wegmann (1974) find out about the effects of jet lag?

A

They were less in the people who went outside more when they reached their destination, a they were exposed to more light and reset their SCN

95
Q

What did DeCoursey’s experiment with chipmunks entail?

A

She removed the SCN from the chipmunks and released them back into the wild

96
Q

What were the results of DeCoursey’s chipmunk experiment?

A

Most of the chipmunks had died after a month, having been attacked by weasels. It was theorised that this was because the chipmunks were not sleeping, o were active at the wrong times, and overly tired

97
Q

What is a post mortem examination?

A

The examination of the brain of a deceased individual

98
Q

Why might researchers decide to do a postmortem examination on an individual who showed abnormal behaviour?

A

They may examine the brain to look for any abnormalities that might explain the patient’s behaviour when alive, possibly correlate certain areas of the brain to certain functions

99
Q

What does an Electroencephalogram (EEG) measure?

A

An EEG measures electrical activity in the brain

100
Q

How does an EEG work?

A

Electrodes are placed on the scalp, which detect small electrical charges from the activity in the brain cells. These signals are graphed over time, creating an EEG reading.

101
Q

What can an EEG be used for?

A

Detecting brain disorders such as epilepsy or Alzheimer’s disease. They can also be used to look at sleep and sleep disorders, as different stages of sleep give out types of wave

102
Q

What are the four basic patterns of brain waves?

A 
Alpha waves (when a person is awake)
Beta waves (when physiologically aroused)
Delta and theta waves (found in sleep)
103
Q

What does fMRI stand for?

A

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

104
Q

What does an fMRI measure?

A

Changes in blood flow to a particular area of the brain, which indicates increased neural activity in those areas

105
Q

Does an fMRI scan rely on a radioactive tracer?

A

No

106
Q

What is an ERP a derivative of?

A

An EEG

107
Q

Why might EEG data not be able to give a clear correlation?

A

All brain waves are recorded, not just those in response to a stimulus

108
Q

How does an ERP filter out unwanted data from an EEG?

A

The procedure uses a statistical averaging technique to remove extraneous variables, leaving only event related potentials

109
Q

What are the pros of a post mortem examination as a way of looking at the brain?

A

It was the only option in early psychology, before the development of brain scanning techniques etc

110
Q

What are the pros of EEGs?

A

They can detect activity in under one millisecond, so have a high temporal resolution

111
Q

What are the problems with EEGs?

A

They’re only a general measure, the electrical activity from one neuron firing will not trigger the EEG

112
Q

What are the positives of using an fMRI?

A

Unlike other scans such as PET scans, it doesn’t rely on the use of a radioactive tracer

113
Q

What are the pros of using an ERP to measure brain activity?

A

Its more specific than an EEG

Its derived from an EEG so has high temporal resolution

114
Q

What are the problems with using ERPs?

A

The procedure has not been standardised, so its difficult to compare findings from different subjects using this technique

115
Q

What is an Infradian Rhythm?

A

A biological Rhythm that lasts longer that lasts longer than 24 hours

116
Q

Give two examples of infradian rhythms

A

The Menstrual Cycle

Seasonal Affective Disorder

117
Q

Which Hormones are involved in the in the menstrual cycle?

A

Oestrogen and Progesterone

118
Q

Which hormone causes the ovary to develop an egg and release it (ovulation)?

A

Oestrogen

119
Q

Which Hormone is involved after ovulation, to help the womb lining grow thicker and ready the body for pregnancy

A

Progesterone

120
Q

Which study showed that women’s cycles would synchronise with other women’s cycles?

A

Russell (1980)

121
Q

What was the method of Russell’s 1980 study?

A

They presented the swear of one woman onto the upper lip of another woman, who they were not living with, to see if the pheromones from the sweat influenced the menstrual cycle

122
Q

What is the “McClintock Effect”?

A

The ‘alleged’ process where women who live together begin to have synchronised menstrual cycles

123
Q

What doe the results of Russell’s study suggest about the menstrual cycle.

A

The women appeared to shift their cycle, along the timeline of the woman who’s pheromones they were presented. This suggests the menstrual cycle is affected by exogenous zeitgebers

124
Q

What is a major issue with research into menstrual sequence synchronisation?

A

As different women have different length menstrual cycles, they can often synchronise over a short period of time anyway, regardless of pheromones.

125
Q

What further research suggests the menstrual cycle is an in-built Infradian rhythm?

A

Penton Voak found that women who were ovulating preferred more masculine faces, and when they were less fertile they preferred more feminine faces.

Masculine faces suggest virility and good genes, feminine faces suggest kindness and co-operation, so masculine faces are better at a time for mating, etc

Suggests that there are rhythms running alongside the menstrual cycle

126
Q

Briefly outline Seasonal Affective Disorder

A

A mood disorder, that is linked to the seasons.

Leads to feelings of sadness or hopelessness

127
Q

What is the most common treatment for SAD?

A

Exposing the patient to a light box, that simulates natural light, for as little as 10 minutes a day

128
Q

What hormones are released by the Pituitary gland in the Menstrual Cycle

A

LH and FSH

129
Q

Name an Ultradian Rhythm

A

Sleep Cycle

Basic Rest Activity Cycle

130
Q

Which stage of sleep is associated with dreaming?

A

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep

131
Q

What exogenous zeitgeber is known to affect the sleep wake cycle?

A

Sunlight

132
Q

What is BRAC?

A

Basic Rest Activity Cycle

133
Q

How long is the Basic Rest Activity Cycle?

A

90 minutes, characterised by periods of alertness, followed by a spell of physiological fatigue

134
Q

What study found that prodigious violinists tended to practice in sessions across the day, lasting around 90 minutes, and no more than around 3 a day?

A

Ericcson et al (1993)

135
Q

How many sleep stages are there?

A

5

136
Q

When in the sleep stages does the brain produce delta waves?

A

Stages 3 and 4

137
Q

What are the stages where you are not dreaming called?

A

NREM sleep

138
Q

Who created the theory of the Basic Rest Activity Cycle?

A

Kleitman (1969)

139
Q

How often does the sleep cycle repeat itself?

A

Every 90-100 minutes

140
Q

Define Ultradian Rhythm

A

A biological rhythm that cycles in a period shorter than 24 hours

ALL PSYCHOLOGY (108 decks)

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