approaches

Question 1

outline the origins of psychology

Answer 1

Wundt. 1870s. opened the first psychological lab in Germany. Used introspection (looking inwards/ self- examination), analysing your own conscious experience to standard stimuli, reporting present experience such as sensations, emotional reaction, mental images.
systematic approach

Question 2

give a weakness of Wundt’s work

Answer 2

Wundt’s work was criticised by later behaviourist theorists who thought internal mental processes could not be studied scientifically by introspection, they focused only on observable inputs (stimuli) and outputs (behaviours)

Question 3

give strengths of Wundt’s work

Answer 3

Wundt’s work paved the way for later scientifically controlled research in psychology
-the study of internal mental processes was later continued by cognitive psychologists who built models of how systems such as memory worked, however they used experimentation not introspection.

Question 4

outline the behaviourist approach

Answer 4

developed in an attempt to make psychology more scientific by using highly controlled experiments, criticised earlier attempts to study internal mental processes, sees the mind as a “black box”

Question 5

outline classical conditioning

Answer 5

learning by association.
learning happens when a neutral stimulus NS, is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus UCS so that eventually the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus |(CS) producing the response caused by the UCS

Question 6

How did Pavlov demonstrate classical conditioning

Answer 6

dogs would associate the sound of a bell or metronome (NS THEN CS) with food (UCS) and drool to the CS

Question 7

define stimulus generalisation

Answer 7

conditioned response happens with similar stimuli. e.g: little Albert was classically conditioned to fear a white rat and become afraid of a dog, fur coat and a Santa mask

Question 8

define operant conditioning

Answer 8

learning by trial and error. learning from connection between behaviours and consequences.

Question 9

how did skinner demonstrate operant conditioning

Answer 9

rats learnt from trial and error that pulling on a leaver would release a food pellet. the leaver pulling behaviour became more frequent and deliberate over time. the rats also learnt to press the leaver to stop the floor of the cage being electrocuted for 30s.

Question 10

what are the types of reinforcement

Answer 10

positive- adding a stimuli to increase behaviour
negative- removing a stimulus to increase behaviour
punishment-adding a stimulus to decrease behaviour
extinction- stopping reinforcement will result in the behaviour stopping over time.

Question 11

give two strengths of the behaviourist approach

Answer 11

-Little Albert study showed fear could be a learnt response, suggesting not instinctual. Led to development of behavioural explanation and counter conditioning treatments for phobias.
-behaviourists use objective scientific experimental methods- systematically manipulating variables, focus on observable behaviour demonstrates cause and effect

Question 12

give two weaknesses of the behaviourist approach

Answer 12

-research mainly with animals, therefore generalisation to human behaviour could be limited
-behavioural theories have been used in an attempt to control human behaviour (token economies) this can be seen as unethical.

Question 13

outline the social learning theory

Answer 13

agrees with behaviourist ideas that behaviour results from learnt experience, disagrees with behaviourist approach of ignoring internal mental processes, suggesting they must be present for learning. Focuses on learning taking place in a social context due to exposure to others behaviour.

Question 14

define imitation in regards to social learning theory

Answer 14

the behaviour of others is observed, if behaviour is rewarded we are more likely to reproduce the behaviour (vicarious reinforcement). less likely to replicate if observes negative consequences.

Question 15

define modelling in regards to slt

Answer 15

others act as blueprints for our behaviour. can be real people or symbolic models.

Question 16

define identification in regards to slt.

Answer 16

models with characteristics we relate to (e.g, age, gender, ethnicity) are more likely to be imitated

Question 17

define meditational processes in regards to slt

Answer 17

cognitive processes between stimulus and response that influence likelihood of behaviour imitation. attention (see), retention (remember), motivation (want/rewards) and reproduction (can/skill)

Question 18

outline bandora’s study in regards to slt

Answer 18

Bandura 1961. 72 3-5 year olds. Children matched on levels of aggression. Groups watched videos of adults interacting aggressively or non-aggressively/neutrally with a bobo doll. Children matched on levels of aggression

Question 19

what did the bobo doll study find

Answer 19

aggression was imitated in group who watched adult’s model aggression. other group were not aggressive. effect stronger if adult was the same gender as the child. suggests imitation and identification/

Question 20

give a strength of slt

Answer 20

bandoras research used controlled variables and demonstrated behaviour was imitated. however, a cause and effect relationship due to imitation in real life examples of aggression is difficult to study.

Question 21

give 2 weaknesses of slt.

Answer 21

-conditions used in slt are not observable directly, making slt less scientific than behaviourists who only studied objectively measurable stimulus response mechanisms.
-slt processes can explain the development of basic learnt behaviours (aggression) but not more abstract concepts like justice.

Question 22

outline the cognitive approach

Answer 22

behaviour is the result of conscious and unconscious information processing (thoughts)

Question 23

outline internal mental processes

Answer 23

a series of stages of mental information processing. stages are represented by cognitive theories as theoretical models, these are flow charts like those used by computer programmers showing how information flows and is processed in a mental system such as memory WWM/MMS or attention. These models produce theories testable by experiment.

Question 24

what does the cognitive approach suggest is similar to the brain

Answer 24

the cognitive approach suggests the brain can be viewed as similar to a computer CPU and the mind as like the software that runs on the CPD. Computers also have inputs like the brain has senses and outputs like behaviour. This is termed the computer model.

Question 25

outline the role of schema in regards to the cognitive approach

Answer 25

cognitive mental frameworks/blueprints of how people/objects work. Formed from prior experience, these organise the large amount of new information we experience every moment and make assumptions on how to behave and think, however incorrect schema led to stereotypes, prejudice and bias.

Question 26

define inferences in regards to the cognitive approach

Answer 26

going beyond observed behaviour to make assumptions about the underlying structure of mental processes that resulted in that behaviour. Used as internal mental processes, cannot directly be observed.

Question 27

explain the emergence of cognitive neuroscience.

Answer 27

the development of new brain scanning techniques such as FMRI, have allowed thought processes to be linked to patterns of activity in the brain, providing neurological-biological support to pre-existing cognitive models such as the WMM.

Question 28

explain 2 weaknesses of the cognitive approach

Answer 28

-machine reductionist, oversimplifies human behaviour by describing human thinking as processing like a computer. computers do not have features of human experiences such as emotion, irrationality and consciousness.
-using inferences to assume underlying processes in thinking is unscientific as internal mental processes cannot be directly tested and inferences made high be mistaken or influenced by bias.

Question 29

explain 2 strengths of the cognitive approach

Answer 29

-soft determinist. cognitive is an example issue of soft determinism, thoughts are influenced by previous experience (schemas) and brain structure, however conscious thought can override as an expression of free will.

Question 30

outline the biological approach

Answer 30

behaviour is a result of physical processes within the body, primarily neurological brain activity but also hormonal factors. These processes are inherited genetically and are a result of evolutionary pressure.

Question 31

explain the influence of genes on behaviour

Answer 31

the influence of genes on behaviour is demonstrated through twin and family studies, showing the risk of disorders such as schizophrenia, OCD and depression increase significantly the more closely related people are to a sufferer, as they share more genes.

Question 32

outline how genotypes explain the influence of genes on behaviour

Answer 32

genotypes (GT), the genetic information inherited from parents, that code for distinct observable physical and behavioural characteristics called phenotypes (PT). So the expression of physical and behavioural properties PT are dependent on the inheritance of GT’s. e.g; certain genes gt code for production of high testosterone leading to psychological characteristics PT such as high levels of aggression.

Question 33

explain what is meant by biological structures

Answer 33

neural areas in the brain are associated with behavioural functions, such as the amygdala (emotional responses), orbital frontal cortex (future planning) and Broca’s area (speech production) the development of these areas of the brain and the connections between them are coded for genetically.

Question 34

explain what is meant by neurochemistry

Answer 34

neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine can influence brain/ synaptic functioning. imbalances result in changes in behaviour such as aggression levels and psychopathology, hormones (adrenaline) related by the endocrine system in response to stressors results in the “fight or flight” behavioural response.

Question 35

explain what is evolution

Answer 35

evolution is the selection of GT’s that code for PT’s that provide a survival and/or reproductive advantage. Behaviours with these advantages will become more prevalent in a population, examples in human behaviours are dominance group co-operation and mate-guarding

Question 36

explain two weaknesses of the biological approach

Answer 36

there is a complex interaction between environmental experiences and the development of biological structures not fully explained by a purely biological approach shown by work on plasticity, Maguire (2000) used MRI brain scans on taxi drivers who had completed a memory test called knowledge, areas of their hippocampus were significantly larger than controls.

biological determinism. suggests that human behaviour and thought processes are the result of biological processes outside of our conscious control. This goes against the view that our decisions are driven by free will.

Question 37

explain a strength of the biological model

Answer 37

the effectiveness of the drug treatments developed by biological psychologists, as well as biological theories have been demonstrated by highly controlled nomothetic research studies using techniques that provide objectivity such as blood tests and FMRI.

Question 38

outline the psychodynamic approach

Answer 38

focused on studying how unconscious psychological processes shape behaviour, these processes are thought to form during early childhood experience. founded by freud who also based psychoanalytic therapy on these ideas.

Question 39

define the unconscious

Answer 39

one of three aspects of the mind, also including the conscious (awareness) and the preconscious (thoughts/memories that can be recalled, but not currently in conscious awareness). The unconscious is not open to awareness, containing socially unacceptable thoughts, painful emotions, drives/instinct and memories that are repressed.

Question 40

define the structure of personality

Answer 40

formed of the ID (pleasure principle) present from birth, focused on satisfying its own needs/desires.

Question 41

define the ego

Answer 41

(reality principle) develops from 2 years, focused on balancing other two aspects with rational thought.

Question 42

define the superego

Answer 42

(morality principle) develops form 3-5 years, focused obeying learnt rules of society and uses guilt

Question 43

define defence mechanisms

Answer 43

unconscious processes that reduce anxiety felt by the ego by distorting reality. include repression (making a memory inaccessible to consciousness), denial (refusing to accept the reality of a situation) and displacement (moving emotions form the source to an alternative)

Question 44

define psychosexual stages

Answer 44

phases of development that children pass through. fixation can occur at any stage, resulting in adult psychological DISORDERS. Stages are named after where the child receives pleasure and are: ORAL (0-18), ANAL (18months-3 years), PHALLIC (3-6 YERAS), LATENT (6-PUBERTY) and GENITAL (PUBERTY TO ADULT)

Question 45

define humanistic psychology

Answer 45

developed in the 1960s in response to other psychological approaches that focused on the negative/pathological aspects of human behaviour, instead humanism focuses on personal growth.

Question 46

define free will

Answer 46

humanistic psychologists suggest that while there are laws and constrains on our behaviour, our actions are not determines by cause and effect relationships (biological or environmental) we ultimately consciously choose our behaviours freely.

Question 47

define self-actualisation

Answer 47

the point at which the individual has achieved their full potential. humanists think everyone has the capability and motivation to work towards this goal.

Question 48

outline Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 48

suggests before satisfying the need for self-actualisation, the individual must meet more basic needs, then progressing on to higher needs. In order
physical (survival needs)
safety
love/belonging
esteem (respect)

Question 49

outline the ideas surrounding focus on the self

Answer 49

Rodgers suggests each person has a self-concept (how you see yourself) and an ideal self (how you would wish to be). Congruence is how close the self-concept and ideal self are. If there is a big difference (incongruence) then self-actualisation cannot be achieved.

Question 50

define conditions of worth

Answer 50

the requirements an individual feels they need to meet in order to be loved. (real or imaginary). conditions of with stops self-actualisation.

Question 51

outline humanistic counselling

Answer 51

rodgers client entered therapy attempts to help the client achieve congruence and provides unconditional positive regard (opposite of conditions of worth). the client is the “expert” responsible for solving their own problems.

Question 52

outline a strength of humanistic psychology

Answer 52

takes a holistic view of studying humans, considering all factors when attempting to understand individuals, using ideographic methods such as case studies.