APES 4 & 5 Flashcards
who proposed the continental drift theory?
Alfred Wegener
orogenic belt
when two plates collide & compress
what can be produced when a denser oceanic plate moves underneath a less dense continental plate
oceanic trench on the ocean side & mountain range on the continental side
example of a subduction zone when a denser oceanic plate moves underneath a less dense continental plate & forms an oceanic trench on the oceanic side & a mountain range on the continental side
Cascade Mountain Range
what is the space created by divergent boundaries filled with?
molten magma
what 2 things do divergent boundaries cause
massive fault zones in the oceanic ridge system & frequent oceanic earthquakes
2 examples of oceanic divergent boundaries
Mid-Atlantic Ridge & East Pacific Rise
example of a continental divergent boundary
East African Great Rift Valley
what is created when two oceanic plates converge
an island arc
2 examples of island arcs
Japan & Aleutian Islands in Alaska
example of a continental-continental plate convergence
Himalayas
example of a transform plate boundary
San Andreas Fault
Good soil composition (__% minerals __% organic matter, __% air, __% water
45% minerals 5% organic matter, 25% air, 25% water
loam soil composition (__% minerals __% organic matter, __% air, __% water
45% minerals 5% organic matter, 25% air, 25% water
O horizon
surface litter: leaves & partially decomposed organic debris. May be very thick in deciduous forests & very thin in tundra & desert
which soil horizon contains leaves & partially decomposed organic debris. May be very thick in deciduous forests & very thin in tundra & desert
O horizon
A horizon
topsoil: organic matter (humus), living organisms, inorganic minerals. The topsoil is typically very thick in grasslands
topsoil is typically very thick in what biome?
grasslands
which soil horizon contains
organic matter (humus), living organisms, inorganic minerals. The topsoil is typically very thick in grasslands
E horizon
zone of leaching: dissolved & suspended materials move downward
which horizon is the zone of leaching
E horizon
B horizon
subsoil: tends to be yellowish due to the accumulation of iron, aluminum, humid compounds, & clay leached down from the A & E horizons. It can be rich in nutrients in areas where rainwater leached nutrients from soil
which soil horizon contains the subsoil
B horizon
why does subsoil tend to be yellowish
due to the accumulation of iron, aluminum, humid compounds, & clay leached down from the A & E horizons.
C horizon
weathered parent material: partially broken-down inorganic materials
which soil horizon contains weathered parent material/partially broken-down inorganic materials
C horizon
how does soil erosion damage the soil
decreases the soil’s water-holding capacity, destroys the soil profile, & increases soil compaction
how are igneous rocks formed
cooling
most soils come from which type of rock
igneous rock
intrusive igneous
solidify deep underground, cool slowly, granite
granite is which type of rock
intrusive igneous
extrusive igneous
solidify at or near the surface, cool quickly, basalt
basalt is which type of rock
extrusive igneous
how are metamorphic rocks formed
by intense heat & pressure
which type of rock has a high quartz content
metamorphic
examples of metamorphic rocks
diamonds
marble
asbestos
slate
anthracite coal
marble is which type of rock
metamorphic
how are sedimentary rocks formed
by the piling & cementing of various materials
in which type of rock are fossils found
sedimentary
soil texture
relative abundance of sand, silt, & clay
what type of plants is sand good for
plants & crops requiring low amounts of water
clay has (low/high) permeability
low
sand has (low/high) permeability
high
what is humus & how is it formed
dark organic material that forms in soil when plant & animal matter decays
why is humus beneficial to soil
soil with humus will crumble, which allows air & water to move easily through the loose soil, making root growth easier, & stabilizing the pH
when theres little or no light, plants require _____ to break down the plant’s sugar(s) to release CO2, water, & energy
oxygen
low permeability can lead to….
salinization
light-textured soils
sandy
heavy-textured soils
clay
do light-textured soils or heavy-textured soils need to be watered more
light-textured
do sandy soils or clay soils need to be watered more
sandy
% water-holding capacity equation
(Vw/Vt) x 100%
where Vw is the volume of water required to saturate the soil & Vt is the total volume of the saturated soil
Great Oxidation Event (GOE)
time period when the Earth’s atmosphere & the shallow ocean experienced a rise in oxygen
four primary gases that compose Earth’s atmosphere
Nitrogen, Oxygen, Water Vapor, Carbon Dioxide
What percentage of the earth’s atmosphere is nitrogen
78%
What percentage of the earth’s atmosphere is oxygen
21%
What percentage of the earth’s atmosphere is water vapor
0-4%
What percentage of the earth’s atmosphere is CO2
<1%
how does nitrogen deposit on earth
nitrogen fixation & reactions involving lightning & subsequent precipitation
most abundant element in earth’s crust
oxygen
average lifetime of a CO2 molecule
~100 years
lowest portion of the earth’s atmosphere
troposphere
most of the atmosphere’s mass is contained in which layer
troposphere
the ozone layer absorbs UVA, UVB, or UVC
UVB & UVC
temperature (increases/decreases) with altitude in the stratosphere
increases
the ozone layer absorbs high-energy ultraviolet radiation from the sun & is broken down into which two elements
atomic oxygen (O) & diatomic oxygen (O2)
convection
way energy is transferred from hotter to colder regions in earth’s atmosphere
ocean water has (low/high) albedo
low
for every 1000 feet of rise in elevation, there us a ___ degree drop in temperature
3
are temperature changes more extreme in the middle of continents or on coasts
more extreme in the middle
front
when two different air masses meet
warm fronts are often associated with a (lower/higher) risk of rainfall
lower
stationary front
air of air masses where neither of them is string enough to replace the other & tend to remain in the same area for a long time. Associated with significant amounts of rain or freezing rain
4 most important greenhouse gases
water vapor (H2O)
carbon dioxide (CO2)
methane (CH4)
nitrous oxide (N2O)
N2O
nitrous oxide
when do daily minimum temperatures occur
just before sunrise
what causes land breezes
calm clear nights when the land cools down faster than the sea, resulting in the air above the land becoming denser then the air above the sea, so air moves from the land toward the coast
what causes sea breezes
calm sunny days when the land warms up faster than the sea
low-pressure weather system associated with…
clouds & precipitation
high-pressure weather system associated with…
fair weather
what is wind speed determined by
pressure differences between air masses
the greater the pressure difference of air masses, the (weaker/stronger) the wind speed
stronger
what is wind speed measured with
anemometer
what is wind direction measured with
a wind vane
coriolis effect
causes prevailing winds to not travel straight
due to the coriolis effect, objects are deflected (right/left) in the northern hemisphere
right
due to the coriolis effect, objects are deflected (right/left) in the southern hemisphere
left
where is the coriolis force at zero
the equator
where are the Hadley cells located
near the equator
where are the ferrel cells located
30 degrees and 60 degrees north & south latitudes
what latitudes are trade winds located
0-30 degrees
what latitudes are westerlies located
30-60 degrees
what latitudes are easterlies located
60-90 degrees
polar vortex
low-pressure zone embedded in a large mass of very cold air that lies atop both poles
what is the polar vortex dependent on
the temperature differences between the equator & the poles
the eye of the hurricane is an area with…
descending air & low pressure
storm surge
rise in sea level that occurs during hurricanes
monsoons
strong, often violent winds that change direction with the season
monsoon winds blow from (warm/cold) to (warm/cold) regions
cold to warm
monsoon blow from the (land/sea) to the (land/sea) in the winter
land to the sea
monsoon blow from the (land/sea) to the (land/sea) in the summer
sea to the land
Why is India’s climate high
because the Himalayas form a barrier that prevents cold air from passing onto the subcontinent
watershed
area of land that drains water from rainfall & snowmelt into a specific body of water or lets it seep into the group & collect it in an aquifer
largest watershed in the U.S.
Mississippi River watershed
what is the title of the earth’s axis (in degrees)
23.5 degrees
where is the Tropic of Cancer
23.5 degrees north of the equator
where is the Tropic of Capricorn
23 degrees south of the equator
What is El Niño associated with (what happens)
The El Niño phase of ENSO is associated with warmer surface temperatures in the eastern Pacific and higher rainfall in the central Pacific. Storms and hurricanes are more frequent in the central Pacific. There is a weaker upwelling of nutrient-rich water off the coast of South America during this phase.
Which type of ENSO pattern contains both low air surface pressure and a cooling phase?
La Niña
during which ENSO phase is there more rain in the west pacific
La Niña
what is the warm phase of ENSO
El Niño
how are forest edges created
when trees are harvested
what is Bt corn
genetically modified corn that produces insect toxins within the cells of the corn
rangeland
lands grazed by domestic animals
what percent of landmass in the U.S. are rangelands
40%
how does salinization occur for soil?
water that is not absorbed into the soil evaporates & leaves behind dissolved salts in the topsoil
tillage
when the surface is plowed & broken ip to expose the soil, which is then smoothed & planted
furor irrigation
like in Minecraft
which state accounts for 60% of the U.S.’ agricultural land using drip irrigation
california
less than ___% of the world’s irrigated land utilized drip irrigation
4%
examples of living organisms that can be used to control pests
-bacteria (Bt)
-ladybugs
-parasitic wasps
-certain viruses
carbamates
causes the swelling of tissue in pests. But it may percolate into groundwater
fumigants
used to sterilize soil (to kill any pathogens) & prevent pest infestation of stored grain
inorganic fumigants
arsenic, copper, lead, mercury
highly toxic & accumulate in the environment
organic/natural fumigants
natural poisons derived from plants such as tobacco or chrysanthemum
organophosphates
extremely toxic but remain in the environment for only a brief time
what does something need to contain to be considered organic
carbon
example of a POP
DDT
what do POPS stand for
persistent organic pollutants
what are POPS
organic (containing carbon) group of chemical compounds that do not break down through chemical or biological processes & which are able to pass & accumulate in the fattyy tissues of living organisms
pesticide treadmill
some pesticides are toxic toward epics that feed on or compete with pests, which can allow the pest population to expand, requiring more pesticides
Delaney clause of the food, drug, & cosmetic act
prohibits the U.S. Food and Drug Administration from approving any food additive found to cause cancer in animals or humans
what does CAFOS stand for
concentrated animal feeding operations
primary cause of gas emissions from CAFOs
decomposition of animal manure being stored in large quantities
livestock are responsible for ___% of greenhouse gas emissions
18%
what is the second most concentrated greenhouse gas
methane CH4
what forms the base of the marine food web
phytoplankton
what country is responsible for majority of fish harvesting
China
what is aquaculture
mariculture or fish farming
what is mariculture
aquaculture or fish farming
contour mining & is it surface or underground mining
removing overburden from the seam in a pattern following the contours along a ridge or around a hillside
surface mining
dredging & is it surface or underground mining
method for mining below the water table (gold) by suctioning up mined material
surface mining
In situ & is it surface or underground mining
small holes drilled into earth & toxic chemical solvents are injected to extract the resource
surface mining
strip mining & is it surface or underground mining
exposes coal by removing the soil above each coal seam
surface mining
long wall mining & is it surface or underground mining
uses a rotating drum with “teeth” which is pulled back & forth across a coal seam (material breaks loose & is transported to the surface)
underground mining
room and pillar mining & is it surface or underground mining
half the coal is left in place as pillars to support the roof of the active mining area. Pillars are later removed & the mine collapses
underground mining
smart growth
urban planning to prevent urban sprawl
xeriscaping
landscaping & gardening that reduces or eliminates the need for supplemental water from irrigation
what is the IPAT formula used for
to determine the magnitude of human impact on finite natural resources
IPAT formula
I = P x A x T
I = impact
P = population
A = levels of consumption (affluence)
T = technologu
each human on earth uses ~____hectares of Earth resources
2.8 hectares `
why is contour plowing good
Environmental mitigation
Apply measures to avoid effects on the environment resulting from their projects
