APES Flashcards
Competitive exclusion principle
Two species competing for the same resource cannot coexist at stable populations
(one species will become extinct or be forced to evolve to a different niche)
Amensalism
The interaction between two species, whereby one species suffers, and the other species is not affected
Commensalism
The interaction between two species, whereby one organism benefits, and the other species is not affected
Ectoparasitism
Parasites living on the exterior of hosts
Endoparasitism
Parasites living inside their host
Epiparasites
Parasites that feed on other parasites
Saprotrophism
Obtain their nutrients from dead or decaying plants or animals
Law of tolerance
The existence, abundance and distribution of species depend on the tolerance levels of each species to both physical and chemical factors
morphological partitioning
Two species share the same resource, but have evolved slightly different structures to utilize the same resources
(Different beak structures)
Spacial partitioning
When competing species use the same resource by occupying different areas or habitats within the range of occurrence of the resource 
Temporal partitioning
When two species eliminate direct competition by utilizing the same resource at different times 
Two most important determinants of biomes
Temperature and precipitation
Deserts make up what percent of earths surface?
20%
What do extremes in temperatures of deserts result from?
Extremes of temperature result from low humidity as water vapor tends to block solar radiation
latitude of deserts
Between 15° and 30°
Desert soils have (a lot of/a little bit of) inorganic nutrients & (a lot of/a little bit of) organic matter
A lot of inorganic nutrients & a little bit of organic matter
Second law of thermodynamics
As energy flows through systems, more of it becomes unusable at each step or transformation
Closed canopy
Tree crowns cover more than 20% of the ground surface. The majority of the forest biome is classified as closed canopy.
Open canopy
Tree crowns cover less than 20% of the ground surface
Four forest layers in order of bottom to top
Forest floor
Understory layer
Canopy layer
Emergent layer
In rainforest, decomposition is (rapid/slow)
Rapid
Rainforest seasons
Winter is absent; only two seasons: rainy & dry
What biome occurs near the equator
Tropical rainforest
How is rainfall distributed in tropical rainforests
Even throughout the year
Soil in tropical rainforests is (nutrient rich/nutrient poor) and why
Nutrient poor because competition is intense for nutrients
How is precipitation distributed in temperate deciduous forests
Distributed fairly evenly
Whats colder, temperate deciduous forests or temperate coniferous forests
Temperate coniferous
Another word for taiga
Boreal forest
Another word for boreal forest
Tiaga
Largest terrestrial biome
Taiga/boreal forest
What is the main nutrient pool in the tundra?
Dead organic material
Difference between arctic tundra and alpine tundra
The arctic tundra is located in the northern hemisphere & alpine tundras are located on top of mountains & have well-drained soil unlike the arctic tundra
Permafrost exists in what biome
Tundra
Permafrost
Layer of permanently frozen subsoil
Oceans cover approximately __% of Earth’s surface and have a salt concentration of ___%
75% , 3%
Primary source of the world’s rainfall
Evaporation of seawater
Why are air temperature differences between summer & winter more extreme in the Northern Hemisphere
Because the Northern Hemisphere is dominated by land and land warms & cools more quickly than water (which dominates the southern hemisphere)
Convection
The circular motion that occurs when warmer air or liquid rises, while the cooler air or liquid sinks
Is warmer air high pressure or low pressure
High pressure
What are surface ocean currents driven by?
Wind patterns
What are deep-water currents driven by?
Differences in water temperature & density
What are thermohaline currents driven by
Temperature & water salinity
What is the ocean conveyor belt driven by
Thermohaline currents
Littoral zone (oceans)
Ocean zone closest to the shore
Estuaries found here
Neretic zone
Aka sublittoral zone
Extends to the edge of the continental shelf
High primary production bc sunlight reaches the floor
Photic zone
Uppermost layer of water in a lake or ocean that is exposed to sunlight
90% of aquatic life
Where do most corals obtain their energy from
Photosynthetic zooxanthellae that live within their tissue
Fringing reef
Coral reefs near the coastline
Most common
Separated by shallow lagoons
Barrier reef
Coral reefs separated by wider & deeper lagoons (compared to fringing reefs)
Atolls
Coral reefs usually in the middle of the sea
Usually form when islands sink to the sea
Separated by large lagoons
Where are most lakes on Earth located
In the Northern Hemisphere at higher latitudes
Generally found in mountainous areas, rift zones, areas with ongoing or recent glaciations, or along courses of mature rivers
Turbidity
The amount & type of suspended particles in the water
Affects the depth to which light can reach
Examples of inorganic materials
Silt or sand
Examples of organic materials
Decaying plant or animal matter
Biological oxygen demand (BOD)
Amount of oxygen used by decomposers to break down a specific amount of organic matter.
Larger amounts of organic matter (increase/decrease) the BOD and (increase/decrease) the amount of oxygen available in the water
Increase, decrease
Benthic zone
Bottom of a lake
Limnetic zone
Well-lit, open surface water of a lake, father from shore & extends to depth penetrated by light
Littoral zone of a lake
Shallow, close to shore, rooted & floating plants
Profundal zone
Zone of the lake that is deep & is too dark for photosynthesis with low oxygen levels
Oligotrophic lake & example
Young Lake
Deep, cold, nutrient-poor, not very productive
Lake Superior
Mesotrophic lake & example
Middle-aged lake
Moderate nutrient content, moderate amounts of phytoplankton, reasonably productive
Lake Ontario
Eutrophic
Old Lake
Shallow, warm, nutrient-rich, plentiful & productive phytoplankton, Eutrophication occurs over long periods of time as runoff brings in nutrients & silt, low oxygen
Lake erie
Stratification
Layering of water caused by density changes due to shifts in temperature
Thermal stratification
The tendency of deep lakes to form distinct layers in the summer months
Lake stratification layers from bottom to too
Hypolimnion —> thermocline —> epilimnion
Seasonal turnover
Exchange of surface & bottom water in a lake or pond that happens twice a year (spring & fall)
Fall turnover
Fall winds move lake surface water around, which promotes mixing with deeper water
Spring turnover
Spring winds move lake surface water around, which promotes mixing with deeper water
Brackish
Water that has more salinity than freshwater but not as much as seawater
Countries with the most wetlands
Canada, the Russian federation, Brazil
What is 90% of the loss of wetlands due to
Conversion of land for agriculture
Allopatric speciation
Occurs when populations of the same species are geographically separated
source zone
first zone of a river that contains headwaters
-often begins as springs or snowmelt
-cold clear water with little sediment & little nutrients
-narrow channels, swift currents
-high oxygen levels
transition zone
second zone of a river
-slower, warmer, wide, & low-elevation moving streams
-form tributaries
-water is less clear & contains more sediments & nutrients
-more species diversity than source zone
floodplain zone
third zone of a river
-large amounts of sediment & nutrients
-warmer & more murky water
-tributaries join to form water which empty into oceans as estuaries
hydrophilic
water loving (plants)
riparian areas
lands adjacent to creeks, lakes, rivers, & streams that support vegetation
-hydrophilic plants
fundamental element found in carbohydrates, fats, proteins, & nucleic acids (DNA & RNA)
carbon
two places where carbon is found
rocks & carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
two places where carbon is found
rocks & carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
what percent of the atmosphere is carbon dioxide
less than 1%
how can carbon be precipitated into the ocean’s deeper, more carbon-rich layers
as dead soft tissue or shells as calcium carbonate (CaCO3) aka limestone
how does carbon enter the ocean
through dissolution (dissolving) of atmospheric carbon dioxide
what fraction of soil carbon is stored in organic form (calcium carbonate) before being washed into rivers through erosion or released during soil respiration by plant roots or soil microbes
1/3
oceanic absorption of CO2 (increases/decreases) ocean acidity & what are its effects
increases
-disturbs biological cycles such as the creation or coral reefs & the viability of externally fertilized egg cells
why is an increase in CO2 concentrations decreasing the ocean’s capacity to absorb CO2
increasing concentrations of CO2 could slow the biological precipitation of calcium carbonate, thus decreasing the ocean’s capacity to absorb CO2
what percentage of atmospheric carbon is removed through photosynthesis
~15%
photosynthesis formula
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (sunlight) –> C6H12O6 + 6O2
what percentage of carbon do forests store (above ground & underground)
above ground - 90%
soil carbon - 75%
what is CaCO3
calcium carbonate or limestone
chemical formula for limestone
CaCO3
which rock Is a long-term carbon sink
limestone (CaCO3)
in what 3 things in a terrestrial biosphere is carbon stored
old-growth forests
limestone (CaCO3)
peat
what is the carbon in carbon dioxide dissolved in seawater used for & by
by phytoplankton & kelp for photosynthesis
(also by marine organisms for the production of shells, skeletons, & coral)
how much CO2 are oceans absorbing per year?
2 gigatons (4 x 10^12 kg)
when carbon dioxide mixes with seawater, it had the effect of reducing the availability of what (& why is that critical)
when carbon dioxide mixes with seawater, it had the effect of reducing the availability of carbonate (CO3^2-) ions, which many organisms need to build their shells
formula for the dissolving of carbonate (CO3^2-) ions
CO2 + H20 –> H2CO3 –> H^+ + HCO3
the increase in the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in the ocean, does what
decreases the pH of seawater, making it more acidic
___ unit of carbonate ion is consumed for each unit of carbon dioxide added to seawater
one
largest reservoir of carbon in the carbon cycle
limestone (CaCO3)
cellular respiration formula
C6H12O6 + 602 –> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP (energy)
during decomposition, if oxygen is absent, what form is carbon released as?
methane (CH4)
Methane chemical compound
CH4
What is CH4
methane
during decomposition, if oxygen is present, what form is carbon released as?
carbon dioxide
anaerobic
without oxygen
what form of carbon does anaerobic respiration produce
methane (CH4)
what form of carbon does aerobic respiration produce
carbon dioxide (CO2)
aerobic
with oxygen
the total amount of carbon concentrated in vegetation is more than ____ times the total carbon in the atmosphere
three
sequestered definition
long-term storing
Nitrogen makes up ___& of the atmosphere
nitrogen
where is the most nitrogen found
atmosphere
3 nitrogen storages (indicate the largest one)
-atmosphere (largest)
-organic matter in the soil
-oceans
why is there a scarcity of usable forms of nitrogen in terrestrial & aquatic biomes
because it has limited use biologically
3 ways humans have drastically altered the nitrogen cycle
-fossil fuel combustion
-inorganic fertilizers
-production of wastewater & sewage
what do increased concentrations of nitrogen in water lead to
acidification, eutrophication, & toxicity
why is nitrogen essential for plants
essential for photosynthesis & found in chlorophyll, which is essential for plant growth
two elements that are key components in nucleic acids (RNA & DNA) & proteins
carbon & nitrogen
natural cycling of nitrogen in basic terms (summary of the nitrogen cycle)
atmospheric nitrogen is converted to nitrogen oxides by lightning & deposited in the soil by rain, where it is assimilated by plants & either eaten by animals (& returned by feces) or decomposed back to elemental nitrogen by bacteria
nitrogen-fixing bacteria
rhizobium
nitrogen-fixing plants
legumes
nitrogen fixation
atmospheric nitrogen is converted into ammonia (NH3) or nitrate ions (NO3-)
process where atmospheric nitrogen is converted into ammonia (NH3) or nitrate ions (NO3-)
nitrogen fixation
NH3
ammonia
ammonia chemical compound
NH3
two most useful forms of nitrogen to plants
nitrite (NO2-) & nitrate (NO3-)
nitrate chemical compound
(NO3-)
(NO3-)
nitrate
nitrite chemical compound
(NO2-)
(NO2-)
nitrite
nitrification
ammonia (NH3) is converted to nitrite (NO2-) & nitrate (NO3-)
assimilation
plants absorb ammonia (NH3), ammonium ions (NH4+), and nitrate ions (NO3-) through their roots
process where plants absorb ammonia (NH3), ammonium ions (NH4+), and nitrate ions (NO3-) through their roots
assimilation
process where ammonia (NH3) is converted to nitrite (NO2-) & nitrate (NO3-)
nitrification
ammonium chemical compound
NH4
NH4
ammonium
ammonification
decomposing bacteria convert dead organisms & wastes (nitrates) into ammonia (NH3) & ammonium ions (NH4+)
process where decomposing bacteria convert dead organisms & wastes (nitrates) into ammonia (NH3) & ammonium ions (NH4+)
ammonification
denitrification
anaerobic bacteria convert ammonia (NH3) into nitrates (NO3-), nitrites (NO2-), nitrogen gas (N2), and nitrous oxide (N2O)
process where anaerobic bacteria convert ammonia (NH3) into nitrates (NO3-), nitrites (NO2-), nitrogen gas (N2), and nitrous oxide (N2O)
denitrification
nitrogen cycle in order of processes (5)
nitrogen fixation
nitrification
assimilation
ammonification
denitrification
negative effects of ammonia in the atmosphere
NH3 decreases air quality & acts as an aerosol
nitrous oxide chemical compound
N2O
N2O
nitrous oxide
what is nitrous oxide & how is it emitted naturally & anthropogenically
N2O is a greenhouse gas
-emitted through nitrification & denitrification
-largest emission through fertilizer
what is the largest emitter of N2O (nitrous oxide)
fertilizers
pesticide treadmill
when pests develop resistance to pesticides over time, requiring farmers to use higher doses or develop new pesticides
in what part of a nuclear power plant does nuclear fission occur
reactor vessel
ecotone
an area of transition between two different biomes or ecosystems
tropical rainforests have (high/low) soil nutrients
low
what is phosphorus essential for
nucleotides (building blocks of DNA & RNA), ATP, fats in cell membranes, bones, teeth, & shells
primary sink for phosphorus
sedimentary rocks
how is phosphorus released?
By the weathering of sedimentary rocks (or acid rain)
growth of age (increases/decreases) oxygen content in water
decreases
what is the water cycle powered by?
energy from the sun
the ocean holds ___% of all water on the planet
97%
oceans are the source of ___% of all global precipitation
78%
the rate of evaporation (is greater than/is equal to/is less than) the rate of precipitation
is equal to
evapotranspiration
the process by which water is transferred from the land to the atmosphere by evaporation from the soil and other surfaces & by transpiration from plants
freshwater on earth is about __%
3%
of all the freshwater available, where is most of it?
trapped in glaciers & ice caps
what source contains the second most amount of freshwater
groundwater
(a lot/a little bit) of energy is needed to evaporate water
a lot
what holds water molecules together
strong hydrogen bonds
the temperature of water changes (quickly/slowly)
slowly
water (contracts/expands) when it freezes
expands
water has a (high/low) boiling point
high
water has a (high/low) boiling point
high
freshwater renewal rate in the atmosphere
8 days
the use of freshwater is growing at a rate that is _x the rate of population growth
2x (twice)
average amount of freshwater allocated per person in the U.S.
500,000 gallons
freshwater renewal rate in rivers
16 days
freshwater renewal rate of water in the soil
~70 days
freshwater renewal rate of glaciers
~40 years
freshwater renewal rate of lakes
~100 years`
freshwater renewal rate of near-surface groundwater
~200 years
top three most populous countries in order from most populous to least populous
China, India, United States
world’s largest aquifer & where is it located
Ogallala Aquifer, United States
aquifers in the United States hold ___ times more water than all U.S. lakes & rivers combined
30x
groundwater supplies approximately ___% of all freshwater in the United States
40%
do artesian wells reach the confined aquifer or the unconfirmed aquifer
confined aquifer
is the material above an unconfined aquifer permeable or impermeable
impermeable
recharge zone
the surface area above an aquifer that supplies water to the aquifer
unsaturated zone
zone immediately below land surface where the open spaces (pores) in the soil contain both water & air, but are not totally saturated with water
what is the level below which the ground is saturated with water
water table
what happens when the rate of groundwater extraction is greater than the rate of aquifer recharge
a drop in the water table occurs
what is the largest sector responsible for aquifer depletion
agriculture
what reduces aquifer inputs
changes in global weather patterns
land subsidence meaning
land sinking
what do plants capture light with
chlorophyll in cloroplasts
what is measured by g/m^2
biomass
what is measured by kcal x m^-2 x yr^-1
energy
what percent of energy released from the sun is available to plants & what percent is used for photosynthesis
8% available to plants, 1% used for photosynthesis
productivity
rate of generation of biomass within an ecosystem
how is productivity expressed
units of mass/unit surface area/unit time (kg/km^2/yr)
primary productivity is productivity for _____
productivity for plants
secondary productivity
productivity for heterotrophs (generation of biomass by heterotrophic consumers in a system, driven by the transfer of organic material between trophic levels & represents the quantity of new tissue created through the use of assimilated food
how does a marine pyramid of biomass differ from a terrestrial pyramid of biomass
a marine pyramid of biomass is inverted because the biomass of trophic levels is dependent on the life span
of all available sunlight on earth, less than __% for land plants & less than __% for aquatic plants
3%, 1%
Gross primary production (GPP)
amount of energy plants can trap from the sun & use it
(some of the fixed energy is used for cellular respiration & maintaining existing tissues)
Net primary production
overall gain in energy of plants in one year (difference between the rate at which plants produce useful energy [GPP] and the rate at which they use some of that energy during respiration [R])
NPP equation
NPP = GPP - R (respiration)
what place has the highest NPP in general & which place has the highest NPP on a one-to-one per square meter basis
in general: oceans
one-to-one per square meter basis: estuaries
whether a land area supports a deciduous forest or grassland depends primarily on
a) changes in length of growing season
b) changes in temperature
c) consistency of rainfall from year to year & the effect that it has on fires
d) latitude north & south of the equator
C
review question #7 in textbook
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review question #9 in textbook
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review question #17 in textbook
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review question #18 in textbook
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how does global warming affect the hydrologic cycle
it causes the hydrologic cycle to accelerate
three different types of wetlands
marsh
swamp
bog
difference between marshes & swamps
marshes have grasses, swamps can have trees
what is BOD
biological oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen used by microorganisms to decompose organic waste
what contributes to high BOD levels
-large quantity of organic waste in water
-higher-than-normal nitrate & phosphate concentration
