Apartheid: Protests and Actions

Question 1

What was the Defiance Campaign? What strategies were used?

Answer 1

First and most important campaign organized by the ANC (African National Congress) to pressure govt to repeal apartheid laws through involving the masses of ordinary Africans as witnesses as ANC leaders broke apartheid laws, allowing nonviolent civil disobedience to contrast with heavy responses from the police, allowing prisons to fill to the breaking point to put pressure on institutions of repression, and allowing other groups to be part of the campaign

Question 2

Why did the ANC leadership decide to launch the Defiance Campaign in 1952?

Answer 2

By 1952, it was clear that apartheid was different from initial segregation; strong response needed since the govt was unwilling to negotiate; one day strikes were no longer effective. More rigorous action would rally the people. A strong response was also needed to preserve ANC credibility. (Defiance Campaign marked the ascendancy of the Youth Leaguers over the ANC)

Question 3

What National Party action stimulated the ANC’s Defiance Campaign?

Answer 3

Defiance Campaign stimulated by National Party’s celebration of the moment white presence was first established in S. Africa

Question 4

How did the ANC respond to the NP’s celebration of white presence in SA?

Answer 4

Mass rallies.

Question 5

Which organizations were responsible for overseeing the next protests of the Defiance Campaign?

Answer 5

National Action Committee (NAC) made of ANC, South African Indian Congress (SAIC), and Franchise Action Council (FRAC) organized next campaign. National Volunteers Board NVB led by Nelson Mandela as volunteer in chief coordinated the protests

Question 6

What were the official goals of the Defiance Campaign?

Answer 6

force govt to repeal Pass Laws, Group Areas, Suppression of Communism, Bantu Authorities, Separate Representation of Voters, and Stock Limitation Acts.

Question 7

How did the Defiance Campaign begin and spread? What actions did protestors take?

Answer 7

began w/ ANC meeting in Johannesburg that extended beyond curfew; spread w/ volunteers like Mandela and others defying apartheid laws in front of police such as through burning passbooks or breaking certain segregation laws; they’d be arrested and released and then repeat offenses. The campaign then spread to other cities as ANC membership grew

Question 8

What was the Black Sash?

Answer 8

An anti-apartheid women’s group; women were a significant part of the movement.

Question 9

When did the campaign peak? When did it lose momentum? Why?

Answer 9

Defiance Campaign peaked July/Aug 1952 but lost momentum 1953 due to widespread riots breaking out in Eastern Cape, Kimberley and Johannesburg as peaceful protests spilled over into violence. Gave authorities more reason to crush campaign as it spiraled out of ANC control. Criminal Law Amendment Act 1953 let courts give harsher punishments and longer sentences. Organizers were prevented from meeting, so ANC winded down Defiance Campaign.

Question 10

In what ways was the Defense Campaign a failure?

Answer 10

ANC failed to achieve objectives, laws were not repealed, more repression afterwards, rural areas were hardly involved, wave of strikes never happened, middle class blacks were the majority of the movement, few Coloreds joined campaign, many whites saw it as a challenge to their interests, English press unsympathetic to the cause that they saw as radical/confrontational.

Question 11

What was the outcome of the whites only election in 1953, and how did that reflect on the Defiance Campaign?

Answer 11

NP made sweeping gains in a whites only election 1953; ANC’ defiance campaign had not weakened the NP.

Question 12

In what ways was the Defiance Campaign a success?

Answer 12

The problems were necessary for the ANC to start a mass movement. It coordinated its first extended national antiapartheid campaign, improving its national and global profile. Thousands had joined; set the stage for the future. Various groups participated: Indian, Women’s League, trade unions, etc. Peaceful disobedience contrasted harsh govt response; beginning of international campaign against apartheid thru UN

Question 13

How did the Defiance Campaign lead to the beginning of the international campaign against apartheid?

Answer 13

Peaceful civil disobedience and disproportionately harsh govt response showed the corruption of apartheid to the international community. Caused UN to establish Commission on Racial Situation in the Union of South Africa

Question 14

What was the COP? When did it convene?

Answer 14

Congress of the People. Convened 1955, alliance of antiapartheid congress movements, including ANC

Question 15

What were the objectives of the COP?

Answer 15

Force single popular front in uniting S. Africa, expand ANC membership by involving poorer Africans to start a mass movement, draft a Freedom Charter, consolidate ANC strategy of working w/ other parties

Question 16

Who first proposed the COP and why?

Answer 16

COP first proposed by Prof ZK Matthews 1953 to represent South Africans of all races.

Question 17

Which groups aligned to establish the Congress Alliance and National Action Council to organize the COP?

Answer 17

ANC, SAIC, South African Colored People’s Organization (later Colored People’s Congress), South African Communist Party, South African Congress of Democrats, South African Congress of Trade Unions (SACTU)

Question 18

Where did COP meetings mostly take place? Why?

Answer 18

COP had mostly small meetings in factories, farms, etc. to raise awareness particularly for poorer black Africans.

Question 19

When and where did the COP read the Freedom Charter? What was the Freedom Charter?

Answer 19

COP read out the Freedom Charter June 25-26 1955 in Kliptown. It was the iconic document for the freedom struggle, calling for an end to apartheid, democracy, equitable distribution of wealth and resources, equality in health care and education, the outlawing of discrimination, etc.

Question 20

How did the reading of the Freedom Charter lead to the Treason Trial?

Answer 20

COP unanimously adopted the Freedom Charter at Kliptown, Kliptown rally ended in police arresting delegates and seizing documents to use as evidence against ANC leaders. This led to Treason Trial.

Question 21

What was the Treason Trial? What did the apartheid government argue? What was the outcome?

Answer 21

Govt claimed that COP was designed to uproot the National Convention of 1908-1909, which was the body that drafted the first S. African constitution and ws a union of the four white S. African provinces. Govt argued that the Freedom Charter was treason against the state, but flimsy charges meant all accused were acquitted in 1961.

Question 22

What was a major form of black protest even before 1948? Give an example.

Answer 22

Bus boycotts, 1943, Mandela and thousands of supporters marched nine miles from Alexandra to Johannesburg.

Question 23

What were typically the causes of the bus boycotts?

Answer 23

Causes were usually economic, not political, they were unplanned reactions to bus companies raising fares because of low African wages and high unemployment

Question 24

What was often the outcome of the bus boycotts, in comparison to other demonstrations?

Answer 24

Bus boycotts were often successful, unlike other demonstrations; Johannesburg Chamber of Commerce would often intervene and persuade bus companies to lower rates.

Question 25

Why were bus boycotts limited in their effectiveness as protests?

Answer 25

they were limited because they could not be organized by the liberation movement but were contingent on bus company decisions, so timing could not be dictated.

Question 26

Bus boycotts showed the potential of organized popular action as peaceful protest. What was the most famous one?

Answer 26

The Alexandra Bus Boycott

Question 27

When/what was the initial trigger for the Alexandra Bus Boycott? What were some deeper causes?

Answer 27

January 1957, PUTCO (bus company) raised fare from 4 pence to 5, commuters literally could not afford it since they’d be spending over a month’s salary on bus fares annually; deeper causes were the rising political temperature as Verwoerd wanted to eliminate Alexandra and its population thru forced evictions. Simultaneous lull in political activity meant action was likely

Question 28

How/where did the boycott spread (to)?

Answer 28

Boycott started in Alexandra and spread to Sophiatown, East Rand, Pretoria, Moroka and Jabavu (squatter settlements), etc. Other cities started boycotts to show support for Alexandra, total of around 70K people walking for 17 wks despite police harassment and thunder storms

Question 29

What organization was created to organize the boycotts? Was the ANC well represented?

Answer 29

APTAC (Alexandra People’s Transport Action Committee) created to coordinate boycots; ANC was well represented in APTAC

Question 30

What was the outcome of the Alexandra Bus Boycott?

Answer 30

Boycotters gained confidence; Johannesburg Chamber of Commerce intervened to restore 4 pence fare; bus company, PUTCO, subsidized by the govt

Question 31

Why did the government view the Alexandra bus boycott as a serious threat?

Answer 31

Apartheid govt viewed bus boycott as serious threat: it was not ANC organized and it only ended when protestors received what they wanted. Also caused much more white sympathy for the victims of apartheid as white newspapers reported on the boycott and whites with cars gave rides to blacks

Question 32

Why was the Alexandra Bus boycott damaging to the ANC?

Answer 32

Also damaged ANC: They could not effectively control a mass movement they had not created.

Question 33

What were the long-term causes of the Sharpeville massacre?

Answer 33

Originated w/ the split when the PAC split from ANC: Anton Lembede, Robert Sobukwe, Potlako Leballo disliked ANC’s alignment w/ white communists and non-African anti-apartheid groups; Treason Trial removed major leaders like Mandela from running the ANC directly; gave PAC opportunity to challenge the ANC in 1958; breaking away and forming Pan Africanist Congress 1959.

Question 34

What was the PAC’s strategy? Why were demonstrators gathered at Sharpeville?

Answer 34

hijack ANC campaigns. ANC planned pass laws protest, so PAC set date for its own pass laws protest 21 March 1960, days before ANC planned protests. PAC planned demonstrators to gather at police stations w/out pass books, presenting themselves for arrest nonviolently. 5000 demonstrators gathered at police station in Sharpeville.

Question 35

What happened at the Sharpeville Massacre?

Answer 35

21 March 1960, Uncertain what happened; some argue the crowd provoked the police, throwing rocks; crowed surged forward; etc. One police man opened fire, leading to chain reaction of more opening fire; most of the dead were found w/ bullets in the back as they had tried to flee. 69 killed total.

Question 36

How did black South Africans respond to the Sharpeville massacre? How did Verwoerd respond initially?

Answer 36

Non white South Africans were horrified. Prime Minister Verwoerd showed indifference as he declared that most black Africans supported apartheid and those who demonstrated were coerced by the ANC and PAC

Question 37

What happened as a result of Verwoerd’s indifference? How did he respond?

Answer 37

Clashes erupted at Langa and elsewhere following Sharpeville and resulted in more deaths. Verwoerd declared state of emergency 30 March 1960, thousands of ANC/PAC leaders arrested, Unlawful Organizations Act banned the movements April 8.

Question 38

How did the Unlawful Organizations act affect the ANC?

Answer 38

Now ANC was illegal; left with few options for resistance; decided to begin the underground armed struggle against apartheid. Mandela persuaded ANC in July 1961 to created the MK: Umkhonto we Sizwe, the armed wing dedicated to sabotaging apartheid.

Question 39

In what ways could it be argued that the decision to adopt armed struggle was a direct result of the Sharpeville massacre?

Answer 39

Sharpeville was a turning point in ANC history; moderate leaders persuaded at last of the unrepentant evil of apartheid South Africa. Peaceful protests were scorned. ANC driven underground and faced the rival PAC, who already had an armed wing; ANC had to match them or appear weak

Question 40

In what ways could it be argued that the decision to adopt armed struggle was not a direct result of Sharpeville?

Answer 40

armed struggle was a debate long before Sharpville; “firebrand” leaders like Mandela Walter Sisulu, Oliver Tambo, Alfred Nzo had toyed w/ idea of armed resistance; Mandela had developed an “M Plan” for ANC to create clandestine cells and then guerrilla insurgency against apartheid

Question 41

What was the broader significance of the Sharpeville Massacre?

Answer 41

It brought an immense change in global opinion. For instance, Britain and US agreed to global trade embargo on South Africa; South Africa was forced out of the British commonwealth and became a republic 1961.

Question 42

What does Historian Tom Lodge argue about the Sharpeville Massacre?

Answer 42

Historian Tom Lodge argues that while apartheid was strengthened short term by crackdown, the massacre led to beginning of international campaign against apartheid

Question 43

How did the Rivonia Trail originate?

Answer 43

Rivonia Trial 1963-64 named after Rivonia Suburb north of Johannesburg; location of ANC and SACP safehouse in Liliesleaf Farm for senior leader to escape authorities. Also HQ for the MK. Mandela, Chairman of the MK, was arrested Aug 1962, could no longer organize acts of sabotage, MK still continued until July 1963 when a tip off led to special forces raiding Liliesleaf farm. Police saw MK leaders studying a doc called Operation Mayibuye, plan for revolutionary guerrilla warfare. Eleven defendants (including Mandela) faced charges of treason

Question 44

When did the Rivonia trial start? What were the defendants charged under? Who was the prosecutor, and what did he argue for?

Answer 44

Trial started Oct 1963, defendants charged under Sabotage Act 1962 in which sabotage was named a capital offense; Prosecutor Percy Yutar argued death penalty, saying human lives had been endangered and violence would be used to overthrow the state.

Question 45

How did Mandela and the other defendants respond to the charges?

Answer 45

Mandela and defendants agreed to sabotage charge but argued that they never risked any lives
Defendants’ strategy was to politicize the trial, arguing their struggle was a morally legitimate one for freedom and democracy. Govt left no choice but to respond w/ armed struggle.

Question 46

Why was the defendants’ decision to politicize the Rivonia Trial a risky choice?

Answer 46

It could have led to all their deaths. Mandela could have said that he was imprisoned in 1962 and could not be guilty of breaking the 1962 Sabotage Act, but he stood by his colleagues and took personal responsibility for their acts of sabotage. All defendants agreed not to appeal death penalty because it was a political trial.

Question 47

What was the international response to the trial?

Answer 47

international interest was widespread; UN Security Council passed resolution called S. African govt to end the trial.

Question 48

When did the trial end? What was the outcome?

Answer 48

June 1964. all found guilty but (author of Cry the Beloved Country) Alan Paton president of an anti apartheid Liberal Party testified in an appeal for clemency; all defendants sentenced to life imprisonment at Robben Island max security prison

Question 49

In what ways did Rivonia mark the end of an era of struggle against apartheid?

Answer 49

Govt successfully broke ANC and MK. All major leaders imprisoned/exiled. Little to challenged apartheid until 1976. More and more white S. Africans were voting for NP.

Question 50

Was the freedom struggle actually dead after Rivonia?

Answer 50

No. ANC was not quite dead; nor was freedom struggle. Oliver Tambo was ANC leader despite exile; ANC did not manage any major blows until 1980 but did manage to stay organizationally connected
Mandela became idol for those against apartheid. New organizations were formed such as South African Students’ Organization, Black Conciousness Movement, United Democratic Front.

Question 51

What was the first major act of opposition after Rivonia?

Answer 51

strike in Durban 1973; reminded apartheid leaders and authorities of power of organized protest. Explosion of violence 1976 Soweto Uprising marked start of new phase in the struggle. NP finally took steps toward ending Apartheid 1980s when townships were in open revolt and international isolation and sanctions harmed S. African economy.

Question 52

Why did Anthony Sampson believe the Alexandra Bus Boycott was a success?

Answer 52

It caused Parliament to pass the Native Services Levy act, subsidizing bus fares, which was t he first act of Parliament in 47 years to be passed directly as a result of African pressure.

Question 53

What other historians can you name to discuss apartheid?

Answer 53

Rebecca Fogel, James Burns, Rogers and Clinton