Apartheid: Key Individuals and Groups

Question 1

What was the original name of the ANC? When/where/why was it founded?

Answer 1

Founded as South African Native National Congress SANNC in Bloemfontein 1912 to represent interests of Africans after Union of S. Africa was established 1910 because Black leaders realized that they needed to oppose the racial discrimination of the Union

Question 2

Who were the initial SANNC leaders? What was their strategy? Was it effective?

Answer 2

Initial leaders of SANNC: John Dube (president), Pixley Seme, Solomon Plaatje. SANNC initially operated under the assumption that Africans had benefited from British colonial rule; goal was to persuade Whites that Black South Africans were civilized and worthy of political inclusion. Strategy: work w/ White liberal politicians to reverse segregation and to petition London arguing that the union government did not promote Africans’ wellbeing
Strategy did not work: both delegations were dismissed from London; one was told to negotiate w/ Smuts’ govt in Pretoria

Question 3

When did the SANNC change its name? Who was the new leader? What was the ANC like during the Depression?

Answer 3

Due to setbacks and traditional leaders, SANNC fell stagnant. Changed name to ANC 1922, brief revival in 1920s w/ more leftist leader Josiah Gumede, dormant during Great Depression, ANC viewed by poor as elitist and out of touch

Question 4

When was the ANC revived and why?

Answer 4

ANC revived during WWII as manufacturing boomed, many trade unions and groups formed were often aligned w/ ANC,

Question 5

When was the ANC Youth League formed? Who were the leaders, what were their strategies?

Answer 5

ANC Youth League formed 1944 w/ President Anton Lembede and leaders Mandela, Walter Sisulu, Oliver Tambo; marked strategy change. Youth League did not try to negotiate w/ govt from position of weakness, accepted that the system would not change by itself; Africans could only look to themselves for liberation

Question 6

What were two actions of the Youth League that helped transform the ANC by 1948?

Answer 6

Youth Leaguge and ANC formed connections w/ poorer S. Africans, squatter groups, etc. Youth League drew up Program of Action: proposals for mass strike action and defiance
By 1948, ANC had transformed and strengthened greatly

Question 7

How did the ANC react to the nationalist victory in the 1948 election? How did the govt respond? What did that show the ANC?

Answer 7

ANC acted quickly. Youth League mounted coup against old guard, ANC officially adopted Program of Action, spike in membership, more regarded it as true voice of the people. Bolstered by success, ANC announced series of one day strikes (such as successful May Day Stay-At-Home 1950 w/ help of South African Communist Party: about half of Black workers in Johannesburg went on strike, but armed police fired on protestors and killed 18. Showed what the ANC could expect for government response

Question 8

What tactic did the ANC consistently use throughout the movement?

Answer 8

one day strikes

Question 9

When/why did the ANC work to organize the Defiance Campaign?

Answer 9

1952, irregular strikes were no longer effective

Question 10

How did the Defiance Campaign create a change in ANC leadership?

Answer 10

Moroka, ANC leader, pleaded not guilty after being caught defying apartheid laws, compromising integrity of the Defiance Campaign which intended to fill the prisons w/ protestors. Moroka forced to resign; Luthuli took his place

Question 11

What position did Luthuli take? What was he like as a leader? Why would that be a challenge for the apartheid govt?

Answer 11

Chief Albert Luthuli took Moroka’s place as President General, a committed Christian w/ formidable credentials and traditional style. Redoubtable opponent of apartheid; the apartheid govt would find it hard to paint him as a communist revolutionary who did not support the lower class

Question 12

Luthuli wanted to guide the ANC in the same direction as the Youth League. What major change did he strive for?

Answer 12

major challenge was appealing to the masses who viewed ANC as elitist/middle class organization unconcerned w/ poverty and homelessness of lowerclass

Question 13

What actions did Luthuli/the ANC take in 1953 to help solve the problem of the ANC seeming elitist?

Answer 13

Program of Economic Advancement 1953 to show commitment to helping poorer Africans. Also had a Women’s League to reach out to women. President Lilian Ngoyi elected to ANC National Executive Committee 1956. ANC worked w/ other groups too to create common front, resulted in Congress Alliance, which became the Congress of the People COP which created Freedom Charter

Question 14

How did the ANC respond to Bantu education? Was this effective?

Answer 14

ANC also tried to campaign against Verwoerd’s Bantu Education Act but failed. Encouraged parents to send kids to community “cultural centers” but did not have the funding to make this work

Question 15

What was the Resist Apartheid campaign?

Answer 15

Campaign was stimulated by forced evictions from Sophiatown. Campaign started w/ meeting in Johannesburg 1954, then ANC tried to resist evictions under “We will not move” slogan 1955, but Sophiatown was still completely destroyed by 1960.

Question 16

What issue did the destruction of Sophiatown reveal for the ANC?

Answer 16

many Blacks were excited to be evicted because state housing would not have the expensive rent; this undermined campaign. Showed that ANC still had to win support from low class Blacks.

Question 17

How did the Treason Trial lead to a faction in the ANC?

Answer 17

Treason Trial 1956-61, govt charged ANC leaders w/ treason, all were acquitted but the govt still removed key leaders from the movemenet for seven years, like Luthuli and Mandela. This allowed the challenge in which the PAC broke off from the ANC 1959

Question 18

One of the ANC’s major issues was not being able to create a truly mass movement. How did that change?

Answer 18

by early 1960s, harsh govt repression and creation of the MK and publicity of the Rivonia Trial helped them gather more support from all classes of Blacks. Ironically, ANC reached peak popularity during a peak moment of repression

Question 19

What were the ANC’s successes?

Answer 19

Going from inactive, unpopular organization to creating mass movements. COP, MK, Defiance Campaign. Gathered international attention for the anti apartheid campaign. Took the moral high ground through civil disobedience/nonviolence.
Successes cont: formed alliances w/ various groups through the COP 1955, like South African Indian Congress, South African Colored People’s Organization, South African Congress of Democrats. Freedom Charter was iconic document for civil rights. Although govt crushed ANC and MK in 1964, the movement was undoubtedly the political voice of majority of black S. Africans at the end of 1948-64 period.

Question 20

What were the ANC’s failures?

Answer 20

Did not bring down apartheid. Defiance and bus boycotts did not weaken NP. Party unity failed as PAC broke away. Relations w/ South African Communist Party contributed to split and also alienated White liberals who otherwise would have supported ANC. Armed struggle/MK made many whites believe ANC was a terrorist organization, giving govt excuse to crack down harder
Failures cont: ANC could not formulate a response when govt cracked down after Sharpeville massacre. Jailing of ANC leaders in 1964 led to period of quiet; authorities successfully quashed the movement until 1976.

Question 21

What was the SACP originally founded as? When/where?

Answer 21

Originally Communist Party of South Africa CPSA founded 1921 in Cape Town.

Question 22

What were two major factors in shaping CPSA history?

Answer 22

Bolshevik Rev in Russia, South African labor movement post WWI

Question 23

What was the South African Labor movement?How did the South African labor movement affect the CPSA?

Answer 23

White mining houses wanted to cut miners’ wages and allow blacks to be employed in semi-skilled positions, prompting strikes from white workers that halted production by 1921. CPSA decided to align w/ the white miners, so the CPSA was aligned w/ a racist movement because part of white miners’ actions included assaulting black workers and trying to reinstate the color bar

Question 24

Who was WH Andrews?

Answer 24

July 31, 1921, he became the first General Secretary of the CPSA. He was expelled from the party in 1931 and permitted to rejoin 1938.

Question 25

What was the climax of the white labor movement?

Answer 25

Rand Revolt March 1922, 22K white miners rose up against the state until Smuts suppressed it w/ the army, but he lost the election as a result to Hertzog and the mostly white South African Labor Party, which was quite racist.

Question 26

How did the Rand Revolt affect the CPSA?

Answer 26

CPSA shifted focus from white labor since the Labor Party was its rival to the African proletariat, became majority black by 1925, Called for black majority rule in South Africa by 1928

Question 27

When did the CPSA start forming links w/ the ANC? How did the CPSA change under Gumede’s leadership? How did ANC and CPSA relations develop?

Answer 27

CPSA formed links w/ ANC starting late 1920s. CPSA became more leftist under Josiah Gumede (leader starting 1928). Then ANC went more right under Pixley Seme, CPSA/ANC alliance dwindled, CPSA struggled due to decreasing support.

Question 28

How did the CPSA gain more influence in the late 1930s?

Answer 28

Worked to develop the labor movement and gained influence in late 1930s, focused on black proletariat but wanted nonracial broad coalition. Formed South African Trades and Labor Council and helped establish AMWU 1941.

Question 29

Why did the NP start to see the CPSA as more of a threat? What action did it take?

Answer 29

NP started to see CPSA as threat due to its growing influence. NP argued that communism was trying to undermine Afrikaner unity by bringing non-racialism to whites. Ironically, the NP was simultaneously brewing civil war and turning whites against blacks.
NP was very anti communist, shut down Soviet offices and enacted Suppression of Communism Act 1950, both against CPSA and ANC because the NP strategically categorized ANC as communist to stigmatize it
CPSA made illegal through Suppression of Communism

Question 30

How did the CPSA react to the NP making it illegal? Who were its leaders?

Answer 30

reconstituted (illegally) as SACP South African Communist Party 1953, emphasizing its primary devotion to South Africa and ending apartheid; global emancipation of proletariat was 2nd priority. Yusuf Dadoo (SAIC leader) became chairman, Moses Kotane party secretary

Question 31

What was the SACP’s view of capitalism?

Answer 31

Argued that capitalism had risen to the rise of apartheid

Question 32

How did the SACP work to promote unity? Which member was integral in drafting the Freedom Charter?

Answer 32

SACP and ANC drew closer. SACP helped unite antiapartheid groups thru the COP and influenced the Freedom Charter. Ruth First, leading SACP activist was integral in drafting the Charter and founding Congress of Democrats

Question 33

How did the SACP support the ANC after the Treason Trial?

Answer 33

SACP delegation went to Moscow 1962, securing funding, training, support for MK. SACP paid for Liliesleaf Farm safe house for MK

Question 34

Why was the SACP integral during the Rivonia Trial? How did communism affect the ANC even after the Rivonia Trial?

Answer 34

When ANC/MK leaders were imprisoned, SACP became important as there was nothing left for the movement to rely on except funding and training from friendly communist governments
Tambo, Kotane, Slovo went to USSR to receive guerrilla training 1964
ANC-Moscow relationship continued even after 64, as did SACP influence over ANC

Question 35

What perspective do Rogers and Clinton seem to support regarding the SACP’s role?

Answer 35

Thru close ANC ties, SACP was hugely important for antiapartheid 1948-1964. Pushed ANC for nonracialism and armed struggle. Also helped organize strikes thru union connections, like miners strike 1946, which some historians claim marked the true start of the liberation movement

Question 36

Explain the perspective arguing that the SACP’s role is exaggerated.

Answer 36

Other perspective: easy to exaggerate SACP role because of constant anticommunism from the govt, making the SACP seem like more of a threat to apartheid than it really was. Reality, ANC was dominant force over the SACP. SACP was unique among communist parties for prioritizing South African struggle against apartheid over proletariat revolution

Question 37

What perspective argues that the SACP damaged the liberation movement?

Answer 37

Another perspective: SACP had important role but actually harmed the liberation movement because the govt used the stigmatization of the ANC being associated w/ communism as anti-ANC propaganda. ANC relation w/ SACP alienated some of the White population and the Africanists who formed the PAC

Question 38

What does historian Stephen Ellis claim?

Answer 38

SACP had so much influence over ANC that ANC let itself be taken over by communists post-Rivonia Trial. Head of MK was Joe Slovo, SACP leader. Movement focused on good relations w/ communist states to secure funding

Question 39

When was the MK founded?

Answer 39

1961

Question 40

What was Luthuli and other nonviolent leaders’ argument against forming the MK?

Answer 40

Those against armed struggle argued govt would label ANC terrorist group and destroy it. Armed struggle could mean surrendering moral high ground and losing global favor.

Question 41

What were the main reasons why the ANC turned to armed struggle?

Answer 41

PAC already had an armed wing, rural Africans were using arms to revolt against apartheid, ANC needed an effective response to Sharpeville massacre, the party was already outlawed so being labeled a “terrorist organization” was a weak argument, NP was eager to use force.

Question 42

What was the final straw in the ANC deciding to adopt armed struggle?

Answer 42

ANC planned 3-day strike in May against govt decision to leave British commonwealth, but govt sent tanks into the townships in response, leaving ANC w/ no possibility of effective peaceful demonstrations, ANC and SACP both leaning towards armed struggle, decision to adopt it for ANC taken at Durban ANC party congress July 1961 when Luthuli was finally persuaded that there was no other option

Question 43

When did the MK begin operations?

Answer 43

MK started ops the same day it was constituted: 16 Dec 1961

Question 44

Who was on the MK high command? What did the National High Command do?

Answer 44

Mandela, Sisulu, Slovo, Raymond Mhlaba. This body directed smaller MK regional commands which directed the small cells of the MK which did the actual acts of sabotage.

Question 45

What were the two phases of MK resistance?

Answer 45

Phase 1: sabotage, symbolic strikes and attacking apartheid finances/symbols of the state by destroying electricity pylons and police stations, etc. MK worked hard to avoid loss of life. Phase 2: series of guerrilla campaigns in rural areas, continued sabotage w/ political agitation and strikes, phase 2 never came about

Question 46

When/why did phase 1 of MK resistance dwindle?

Answer 46

Phase 1 petered out by end 1963 w/ more infrequent acts of sabotage due to govt crackdown through General Laws Amendmenet Act 1962 (Sabotage Act) which made even minor acts of sabotage punishable by 5yrs jail to death penalty. Police were vigilant. Mandela, the “Black Pimpernel,” was caught and imprisoned, tried at Rivonia Trial. High Command was not successfully reformed after all MK leaders were found guilty.

Question 47

When did all armed activity stop? How did that affect the movement?

Answer 47

All armed activity stopped by 1964s end, next phase of armed struggle began through exile and limited scale, anti apartheid was at a very low point w/ ANC and MK virtually destroyed. More than a decade would pass before the struggle resumed

Question 48

In what ways was the MK a failure?

Answer 48

it gave govt excuse to crack down, armed struggle phase one lasted only a few yrs, MK organizational structure dismantled by 1964, leaders arrested, imprisoned, exiled. Sabotage was limited, no direct combat or decisive blows, period of inactivity after it was disbanded

Question 49

In what ways was the MK a success?

Answer 49

S. African govt was determined to crush ANC no matter what, so perhaps outcome of crushed resistance was nearly inevitable. MK showed Africans’ courage, acts of sabotage helped bolster ANC’s reputation, cadres were heroic Davids fighting Goliath, MK existence helped keep spirit of resistance alive even during lull, so perhaps first stage of armed resistance was precedent and inspiration for resurgence of resistance 1976

Question 50

Who was Luthuli? What was his background like prior to being a part of the ANC?

Answer 50

President general of ANC 1952 til death in 1967
Father was minister, Luthuli went to mission school, trained as a teacher, religious background and teaching influenced his later career: Christian values made him champion nonviolence, and he championed African education.
Later drawn to politics. Helped organize school boycotts w/ Natal Native teacher’s union. Elected by tribal leaders to chieftancy of Groutville, native reserve area. When Representation of Natives Act 1936 removed Blacks from voters roll in the cape, he wanted to take further action

Question 51

When did Luthuli join the ANC? What was his participation like for the Defiance campaign, and how did the government respond? What was his policy in the liberation movement?

Answer 51

Helped organize Defiance Campaign, govt told him to resign from ANC or resign from chieftancy of Groutville; he refused to comply so lost the chieftancy. Argued in response “The Road to Freedom is Via the Cross” that nonviolence was the only method, Africans needed to convince whites of injustice of apartheid for the system to collapse

Question 52

When was Luthuli elected as the President General of the ANC? How did he influence the office? What were some roadblocks for him?

Answer 52

Luthuli elected ANC president general Dec 1952, helping dignify the office, but the govt gave him a 2yr banning order under Suppression of Communism Act. More banning orders prevented him from having large meetings or public speaking; confined him to rural Groutville. Tried to go to Johannesburg 1954 and was arrested and rebanned

Question 53

What roles did Luthuli have in the ANC in spite of his banning orders?

Answer 53

Nevertheless, Luthuli was important in movement strategy. Other ANC leaders consulted him before making decisions. Made speeches, could attend occasional conference, tried to mediate ANC factions: Africanists (future PAC) and Charterists (those who favored nonracialism and SACP collaboration). Africanists accused him of siding w/ Charterists, contributing to the split of the PAC from the ANC

Question 54

How did the Treason Trial affect Luthuli’s leadership?

Answer 54

He had little direct involvement in the Alexandra Bus Boycott after he was released, and younger figures were taking the lead.

Question 55

What did Luthuli do after Sharpeville and how did the govt respond?

Answer 55

Burned his passbook after Sharpeville and helped w/ ANC’s strikes campaign, arrested again, found guilty but released due to poor health. Govt gave him constant banning orders, so he had to let the youth take control of the movement, as suggested by him allowing Mandela to persuade the ANC to adopt armed struggle

Question 56

When did Luthuli win a Nobel Peace prize?

Answer 56

1961

Question 57

What were some of Luthuli’s major impacts on the movement?

Answer 57

Symbolic figure. His morals and nonviolence contrasted the govt approach. First global icon of the movement. His nobel prize won recognition for the ANC, nonviolence helped win white support for the movement.

Question 58

What are some criticisms of Luthuli?

Answer 58

Some claim he was not very important to movement given limited involvement post 1952, but he was constantly fighting the apartheid system w/ the bans and arrests. Others criticize him for giving into decision to create MK, but the govt had so greatly repressed the nonviolent movement that options were limited

Question 59

What does Historian Scott Couper argue about Luthuli?

Answer 59

Historian Scott Couper argues that his Christian morality and nonviolence, essential qualities in beginning of the movement, were exactly why he lost power/influence over the movement later on. Couper argues that Luthuli did not authorize MK.

Question 60

What was Nelson Mandela’s background like prior to the ANC?

Answer 60

Born 1918, received education at a politically active university, expelled for participating in a student protest. Fled home to escape arranged marriage 1941, met Walter Sisulu, who showed him a law firm. Mandela worked to get his legal articles, then worked in cases defending Blacks who were tried for breaking segrgation laws.

Question 61

What is an overview of how Mandela contributed to the movement? When did he join the ANC?

Answer 61

Dominant figure, icon of the movement from 1948 to 64. Joined ANC 1944, formed ANC youth league, noted for organizational capacity and dynamism and opposition to old guard of the movement

Question 62

What did Mandela think of the ANC’s traditional approach to the movement?

Answer 62

Thought petitions and constitutional approach were too polite, ineffective, obsolete given extreme repression. Persuaded ANC leaders to adopt Youth League’s Program of Action. Elected to National Executive Council of ANC 1949, Youth League President 1950. Perhaps single most important figure in organizing civil disobedience across the nation. Rose to national prominence w/ newspapers reporting his acts of defiance.

Question 63

What happened to Mandela after the Defiance Campaign? How did he respond?

Answer 63

He received a banning order, which gave him time to take his law exams and open the first Black law firm in South Africa in Johannesburg w/ Oliver Tambo, which represented victims of apartheid laws. Mandela also believed in creating united front against apartheid. He had opposed communism initially but his politics swung left as he looked to a nonracial approach and drew closer to SACP. Helped plan COP and helped draft Freedom Charter.

Question 64

Who created the M Plan? When/why?

Answer 64

Mandela, Created “M Plan” 1953 for armed resistance in case ANC had to go underground

Question 65

Nelson Mandela also helped, with limited success, in these two ANC campaigns:

Answer 65

Helped in ANC’s response to Bantu Education and in the Resist Apartheid Campaign w/ limited success

Question 66

How did the Treason Trial increase Mandela’s influence?

Answer 66

A principal defendant in Treason Trial, and his arrests allowed him to rise to prominence as dominant ANC figure. Persuaded the party to adopt MK after Sharpeville

Question 67

Mandela knew he would be arrested shortly after being aquitted after the Treason Trial. What did he do? What nickname did he earn?

Answer 67

last act of public defiance was speech at All-in African Conference, urging govt to admit its errors and create a democracy for all South Africans. Immediately after, he went on the run. Went to Liliesleaf Farm, traveled across the country and organized resistance. Evaded police, nicknamed “Black Pimpernel”

Question 68

How did Mandela participate in the MK?

Answer 68

Helped organize MK as commander in chief w/ its regional command structures. Traveled across Africa after escaping South Africa 1962, met w/ national leaders, received guerrilla training. Arranged for exiled MK recruits to train in Ethiopia

Question 69

Once Mandela returned to South Africa after being on the run, he was arrested. Then he became a principle defendant in the Rivonia Trial. How did the aftermath of Rivonia affect him and the movement?

Answer 69

Mandela disappeared from political scene for next 27 yrs, this stage of the liberation movement came to a close

Question 70

What were some of Mandela’s main contributions to the movement?

Answer 70

Immense contribution. Revitalized ANC in 1940s w/ Youth League, leading force in Defiance Campaign, helped unite S. Africans of all races, through Treason Trial, he was the prime example of resilience of the liberation movement
The MK, Rivonia, and being the Black Pimpernel helped global attention remain on South Africa

Question 71

What does Historian Mary Benson argue about why Mandela became such an icon of the movement?

Answer 71

Historian Mary Benson argues that he came to embody the Freedom Struggle thru the Defiance Campaign.

Question 72

What does Historian Tom Lodge argue about why Mandela became an icon of the movement?

Answer 72

Tom Lodge argues that Mandela as a legend came from after Sharpeville, and he became romanticized thru MK and Black Pimpernel. His speech at Rivonia trial, in which he said he was prepared to die for democracy, cemented his reputation as a fearless and principled opponent of apartheid

Question 73

What was Oliver Tambo’s contribution to the movement?

Answer 73

Co-founder of the Youth League, participated in the Defiance Campaign, worked to end Bantu Education, one of the accused during the Treason Trial. Once the ANC was banned, Tambo left S. Africa with his family and helped operate the ANC from afar, and he became ANC president in 1969. He was a major part of influencing the US Congress to pass the Anti apartheid act 1987.

Question 74

What was Walter Sisulu’s contribution to the movement?

Answer 74

He joined the ANC in 1940 and persuaded Mandela to join too. He was a close friend of Mandela. He helped establish the ANC’s Program of Action, lead the Defiance Campaign, organize the committee that wrote the Freedom Charter, form the MK, and was found guilty and sentenced to prison from the Rivonia Trial. He became deputy president of the ANC in 1990.