AP Human Geo Chapter 12/13 Flashcards
service
any activity that fulfills a need/want and returns money to those who provide it (2/3 of GDP in MDCs, less than 1/2 in LDCs)
settlement
permanent collection of buildings where people reside, work, and obtain services
consumer services
provide services to industrial consumers who desire them and can afford them
- retail
- health
- education
- leisure
1/2 of all jobs in US
business services
facilitate activities of other businesses
- professional services
- transportation services
- financial services
1/4 of all jobs in US
public services
provide security and protection for citizens and businesses
- federal government
- state government
- local government
10% of all jobs in US
which business service has had the largest increase?
professional services
which consumer services have had the largest increase?
education, health care, entertainment, and recreation
central place theory
explains the most profitable location for a business
central place
market center for exchange of goods and services by people attracted from surrounding areas
market area/hinterland
area surrounding service from which customers are attracted
- expressed with hexagons
nodle region
region where core has most intense characteristics
- the further away from one market, the more likely to use other nodes
range
max distance people are willing to travel to use a service
- short range for everyday services
- long range for luxury services
threshold
minimum number of people to support a service (depends a lot on location and population)
- high threshold = luxury
- low threshold = everyday
rank size rule
country’s nth-largest settlement is 1/n the population of the largest settlement
primate city rule
largest settlement has more than twice as many people as the second ranking settlement
primate city
country’s largest city (ex. Mexico); usually found in Europe or colonized countries (not US)
gravity model
optimal location of service is directly related to the number of people in the area and inversely related to the distance people must travel to access it
periodic market
collection of individual vendors that come together to offer foods and services in a location on specified days
- provide goods to people in LDCs and rural areas with low incomes and purchasing power
- provide fresh food to people in MDCs
where do business services tend to concentrate?
cities
- financial institutions attract bank headquarters, insurance companies, etc
- headquarters of large corporations buy shares and sell to global cities
- lawyers/accountants/professionals provide advice to financial institutions and businesses
3 levels of global cities and ranking factors
- alpha, beta, gamma
- economic factors: number of headquarters/financial institutions/lawyers that influence global economy
- political factors: house headquarters of international corporations and are the capital of a country
- cultural factors: presence of renowned cultural institutions/media outlets/sports/colleges
- infrastructure factors: airports/health care/advanced communications
- communications: quick communication with coworkers/clients/customers
- transportation: reinforce primacy of global cities
2 types of business services in LDCs
- offshore financial services
- back-office services
*result of low wage workers, low taxes, and weak regulations
offshore financial services
- typically found in islands or small countries (ex. Switzerland and Cayman islands)
- taxes: low/non-existent; companies and people in other countries can conceal assets in offshore countries
- privacy: bank secrecy; people can protect assets from lawsuits
back office services
- outsourcing
- offer insurance claim processing, payroll, transportation
- rising rates in cities in MDCs have led to businesses moving to suburbs and LDCs
*LDCs offer low wages, demand, and workers who speak english
basic business
exports primarily to customers outside the settlement
- brings money to local economy, stimulating the provision of new nonbasic services (does not work other way around)
- bring new workers, families, and nonbasic services
- basic business growth = nonbasic business growth
nonbasic business
serves primarily customers living in the same settlement
economic base
unique cluster of basic businesses in a settlement
coolness index
percent of population in their 20s, number of bars and nightlife per capita, number of art galleries
clustered rural settlements
- agricultural community where many families live close to each other with fields surrounding the collection of houses and farms
- have consumer services and some business services
- buildings and homes arranged based on cultural and physical characteristics
dispersed rural settlements
- farmers living on individual farms isolated from neighbors
- began in the US mid-Atlantic as settlers where usually individuals instead of groups that settled in New England
- new machinery allowed farms to work at much larger scales
circular clustered rural settlements
central open space surrounded by structures
linear clustered rural settlements
buildings clustered along a road, river, or dike to facilitate communication
enclosure act
- 1750 to 1850
- consolidation of individually owned strips of land around villages into large farms owned by individuals
- forced movement of farmers to urban areas
4 hearths of civilization
- Ur (oldest settlement in Mesopotamia)
- Egypt
- China
- Indus Valley
what were early consumer services related to?
death rituals, priests, and buildings of death rituals
early business services
facilitated trade through setting prices, keeping records, creating currency
early public services
political leaders and defense forces to protect settlements
ancient urban settlements
- provided government, military protection, public services for hinterlands
- Athens
- Rome
medieval urban settlements
- mainly in China
- feudalism
urbanization
process by which the population of urban settlements grows; influenced by increase in percent of people living in urban settlements and increase of number of people living there
city
permanent settlement with large size, high population density, and socially heterogeneous people
difference between rural and urban settlements
- large size: people are more familiar in rural settlements. Urban settlements have more people and they have contractual relationships and know fewer people
- high density: urban settlements require people to be more specialized, but also increase competition
- social heterogeneity: urban settlements have more diverse populations and people have freedom to pursue unconventional jobs and relationships
is the gap between people living in urban areas in MDCs and LDCs growing or shrinking?
shrinking
where do a majority of people live?
urban areas
what is the largest city in the world?
Tokyo
3 fastest growing urban settlements
- Behai, China
- Ghazibad, India
- Sana’a, Yemen
central city
urban settlement that has been incorporated into an independent, self governing unit known as a municipality
- locally elected officials, can raise taxes, provides services
urban area
central city and the surrounding built up suburbs
urbanized area
urban area with more than 50,000 residents
- 70% of Americans live in Urbanized areas
urban cluster
urban area with 2,500 to 50,000 residents
metropolitan statistical area
method of measuring larger functional area of a settlement
- must be an urbanized area
- includes the county of the city
- includes adjacent counties that have a majority of residents who commute regularly to the city (50% of workers must work in the city)
micropolitan statistical area
smaller urban areas
- area of 10,000 to 50,000 residents
- county of city
- adjacent counties
core based statistical area
any one MSA or micropolitan statistical area
combined statistical area
two or more contiguous CBSAs tied together by commuting patterns
primary statistical area
CSA, MSA not in a CSA, or μSA not is a CSA
central business district
downtown
- usually the oldest district in the city
- compact but has many public, business, and consumer services
- focal point of the region’s transportation network
public service in CBD
- city hall, courts, county and state agencies, libraries, places of worship, concert venues, sports arenas
business services in CBDs
businesses that need to be close to public services, other businesses, and need specialized labor
consumer services in CBDs
retailers with high thresholds, retailers with high ranges, and retailers that serve people in CBDs
What’s happening to consumer services in CBDs?
- services with high thresholds are leaving cities and moving to wealthier suburbs
- services with high ranges used to be cities because they brought in dispersed people, these services are now found in suburbs
- businesses that primarily serve CBD workers are increasing due to increasing business in CBDs
residential and manufacturing areas
- manufacturing areas have moved to suburbs for cheaper and
- old ports and industrial areas are becoming community spaces
- residential areas are growing in cities for people without kids
concentric model
1923 by Burgess; city grows outward from a central area in a series of concentric rings
- size and width of rings vary by city but the same rings in the same order appear in all US cities
secot rmodel
1939 by Hoyt; city develops in series of sectors
- certain areas are better for certain activities and people (rich live by rich)
- new housing is farther from center
- best housing along spine and in sector from downtown to outer rings
- industrial activities develop by transportation lines
multiple nuclei model
1945; city is complex structure with more than one center around which activities revolve
- ports, neighborhoods, colleges, airports, etc are all nuclei
- some industries are meant for particular nodes
- edge cities: nodes of consumer and business services around beltway
social area analysis
study where people of varying living standards, ethnic background, and lifestyle within an urban area
census tracts
urban areas divided into ~5,000 residents and correspond with neighborhoods
- splits area into blocks and block groups (~ 4 streets per block with several neighboring blocks)
concentric zone model social area analysis
family in newer home are on outside ring, while family in older home is in the inner ring (same income and ethnicity)
sector model social area analysis
family with higher income won’t live with family with lower income
multiple nuclei social area analysis
people with same ethnic/racial background are likely to live near each other
CBDs in Europe
- residents: more live downtown (wealthy are downtown)
- public services: most prominent structures
- consumer services: high concentration
- business services: professional and financial services, usually in expensive, historic buildings
3 models in Europe
- concentric: newer housing is in outer rings, older housing is by center; suburban housing are high rise buildings
- sectors: wealthy live by wealthy
- multiple nuclei: large increase in immigration; most immigrants live in suburbs
law of the indies
European law on Latin America outlining that cities must be on a grid centered on a church/plaza, walls around homes, neighborhoods built around smaller plazas with parishes
3 models in LDCs
- concentric: (most frequently used) wealthy live in center
- sector: popular in Latin America; wealthy live on spine with jobs, consumer services, and amenities
- multiple nuclei: popular in SE Asia; no one central CBD; Alien Zones
squatter/informal settlements
residential area with homes built on land with no legal claim, or area hasn’t been built to cities’ legal building standards
suburb
residential or commercial area situated within an urban area but outside the central city
annexation
process of legally adding land area to a city
- usually land is annexed if majority of residents who live on land agree to it
- can be favorable because it means more services will be provided to residents
- is unfavorable because people now prefer private services
which state has the most local governments? Which has the least?
Illinois has the most; Hawaii has the least
metropolitan wide governments
- consolidation of city and county governments (match city boundaries to county)
- federations: unification of municipalities
smart growth
legislation and regulations to limit suburban growth and protect farmland
sprawl
development of suburbs at low density and at location not contiguous to existing built up area
peripheral model
urban area has inner city surrounded by large suburban residence and service nodes tied together by beltway/ring roads
density gradient
density change in urban area
- the number of houses per unit of land decreases as distance from center increases
- has changed due to fewer people living in center and fewer differences in density in urban areas
megalopolis
urban complexes (cities maintain unique identities but peripheries overlap)
segregation of social classes
communities are built for a certain income
segregation of land use
residents are separate from commercial and manufacturing activities
zoning ordinance
law that limits permitted use of land and max density of development in a community
- maintains income and racial homogeneity of suburbs
rush hour
(peak hour) 4 consecutive 15 minute periods that have heaviest traffic (make up most of people’s commute)
5 eras of urban areas due to changing transportation systems
1) sail wagon epoch: urban areas along Atlantic (by ports)
2) iron horse epoch: steam engine led to ships traveling faster, also led to canals and railroads
3) steel rail epoch: long haul rail lines connected country
4) auto-air-amenity epoch: internal combustion engine led to popularity of cars and planes
5) satellite-electronic jet propulsion: communicate and control transport electronically
what are the benefits of cars?
comfort/choice/flexibility and perceived cast (cheaper than public transport)
extra costs of cars
- consumption of land: 1/4 of cities are dedicated to roads and parking
- congestion: average american wastes 18 gallons of gas and 42 hours per year in traffic
underclass
group prevented from participating in material benefits of a developed society due to social and economic hardships
- usually live in inner city
factors that affect the underclass in inner cities
- inadequate job skills and jobs
- culture of poverty
- homelessness
- drugs
- crime
- inadequate services
- municipal finances
filtering
process of change in use of house from single-family owned to apartments to abandonment
redlining
process by which financial institutions draw red colored lines on a map and refuse to lend money to people to purchase/improve property within limits (technically illegal)
gentrification
process of converting urban neighborhoods from low income renters to middle class owners
public housing
government owned housing rented to low income people with rent 30% of tenant’s income
- public housing and government subsidies have been decreasing in the US but the people who need them are increasing
- other countries have a type of public housing but the housing is owned by philanthropic organizations
ways to reduce pollution and fossil fuel dependency
- decrease in 3 main fossil fuels
- carbon capture and storage (capturing waste CO2 and storing it underground so it can’t go into the air)
sustainable development
development meets the needs of current people without compromising the needs of future generations
ways to limit road congestion
- congestion charges
- tolls
- permits for city driving
- bans
alternative fuel options for cars
- diesel
- hybrid
- ethanol
- full electric
- plug-in hybrid
- hydrogen fuel cell
urban infilling
process of building up underused lands within cities
white flight
affluent whites moved out of cities to the suburbs and immigrants and minorities stayed in the declining urban center
blockbusting
real estate agents and developers encourage affluent white property owners to sell their homes at a loss of stoking fears that their neighborhoods were being overtaken by racial or ethnic minorities
