AP Human Geo Chapter 10/11 Flashcards
development
process of improving the conditions of people through diffusion of knowledge and technology
developed country
MDC; has progressed further on the development continuum
developing country
LDC; made some progress toward development
human development index
measures level of development (high development = 100)
1) decent standard of living
2) access to knowledge
3) long and healthy life
* gap between MDCs and LDCs has shrunk
Different regions from most developed to least
1) North America
2) Europe (Russia isn’t as high as rest of Europe but is higher than Asian countries)
3) Latin America
4) East Asia (Japan and South Korea are separate as they are more developed)
5) Southwest Asia and North Africa
6) Central Asia and Southeast Asia
7) South Asia
8) Sub-Saharan Africa
*South Pacific is not listed to highly developed New Zealand and Australia and not so developed islands
gross national income
value of output of goods and services produced in a country in a year, including money that leaves and enters the country
* increased more rapidly in LDCs
Gross Domestic product
same as GNI but doesn’t account for money leaving/entering the country
*per capita measures average mean wealth (not distribution)
purchasing power parity (PPP)
adjustment to GNI to account for cost differences per country (ex. euro to USD)
5 sectors of industry
1) primary sector: extracting raw material through agriculture, mining, etc
2) secondary sector: manufacturers that turn raw materials into products
3) tertiary sector: service industry (ex. sales, banking, etc)
4) quaternary sector: specialized tertiary jobs in knowledge sector (ex. teachers, gov, etc)
5) quintary sector: creation, re-arrangement of new and existing ideas (gold collar); ex. ceos, research scientists, etc.
productivity
value of a particular product compared to amount of labor needed to make it (MDCs are more productive since they can make more with less effort)
value added
gross value of a product minus costs of raw material and energy
years of schooling for today’s adults
number of years that average person 25+ in a country has spent in school (11.5 years in MDCs & 4.7 years in LDCs on average)
years of schooling for today’s youth
number of years that the average 5 year old is expected to spend in school (16.3 years in MDCs & 9.3 years in sub-saharan Africa & 10.2 years in South Asia on average)
pupil/teacher ratio
number of enrolled students divided by number of teachers
literacy rate
percent of country who can read and write
average life expectancy at birth
80 years in MDCs, 57 years in LDCs, and 71 years on average globally
most popular consumer goods around the world
- telephones
- motor-vehicles
- computers
inequality adjusted human development index
modifies HDI to account for inequality within a country
- larger difference between HDI and IHDI = more inequality
- LDCs have larger scores
gender related development index
measures gender gap in the level of achievement for the 3 dimensions of the HDI (equal =1)
gender inequality index
measures the gender gap in level of achievement in reproductive health, empowerment, and labor market (unequal = 1)
why does the US have such a high GII?
- high adolescent pregnancy rates
- high child mortality rates
- low percentage of women in the legislature
empowerment
ability of women to achieve improvements in their own status. measured in seats held by women in the legislature and percent of women who have completed secondary school
*Rwanda has most women in congress
female labor force participation rate
percent of women with a full time hob outside of the home (higher in MDCs)
maternal mortality rate
number of women who die giving birth per 100,000 births (higher in LDCs - highest in Sub-Saharan Africa)
adolescent fertility rate
number of births per 1,000 women ages 15 to 19
Wallerstein’s world systems theory (aka core-periphery model)
division of the world’s countries into a global economic core, semi-periphery, and periphery
- core: dominant capitalist countries that exploit periphery countries for their raw material and labor
- semi-periphery: newly industrialized countries (BRICS)
- periphery: least developed countries exploited by core
what obstacles impact development in LDCs?
- making policies that promote development
- finding funds to promote development
self sufficiency path to development
- all about keeping things domestic
- limit imports (tariffs, quotas, need license to buy foreign goods)
- isolation of local businesses from international corporations
- equal investment to all sectors of the economy and regions
- rural wages are similar to urban wages
- ex. India
international trade path to development
- selling/trading unique goods at high quality for cheap labor
-increase in trade, faster than wealth - sale of raw materials to developed countries = increased funds to LDCs
- exposure to demands/needs of the markets to keep up with competition
Rostow’s stages of economic growth
- optimistic model of economic growth that assumes all countries will go through 5 stages of development to eventually become an MDC (assumes every country can reach this level)
1) traditional society: limited technology; static society; primary sector; wealth is in military/religion
2) preconditions for takeoff: infrastructure starts being built by the elite; innovative economic activities; investment in agriculture
3) takeoff: secondary sector; industrial revolution; creation of modern institutions
4) drive to maturity: develop a wider industrial/commercial base; technology spreads; specialized labor
5) age of mass consumption: heavy industry shifts to consumer goods; tertiary sector
4 Asian dragons
- South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong
- lack natural resources
- focused on producing technology and clothes at low labor costs
petroleum rich Arabian peninsula states
- Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE, Oman, and Bahrain
- petroleum is used to finance large scale projects
world trade organization
- 164 members
- regulation of trade in goods, services, and intellectual property between participating countries by providing a framework for negotiating trade agreements and a dispute resolution process
- aims to reduce trade barriers
- criticized for interests of large corporations
- shows global interdependence
foreign direct investment
investment made by foreign company in economy of another country
- only 1/3 went to LDCs
world bank
- reduces poverty through financial assistance
- biased to MDCs
- international bank for reconstruction and development (IBRD) gives funds to develop legal and governmental institutions, develop/grow financial institutions, and make infrastructure and social service projects (money comes from sales and bonds to private investors)
- international development association gives loans to countries too risky for IBRD (money comes form gov)
international monetary fund
gives loands to countries with balance of payments used to help rebuild reserves, stabilize currency exchange, and pay for imports
- investment goes to infrastructure
- biased to MDCs
stimulus stragtegy
during economic downturn, govs should spend more than taxes and increase infrastructure projects
austerity strategy
gov reduce takes and people/businesses must spend tax savings on the economy
microfinance
provision of small loans and financial services to individuals and small businesses in developing countries that can’t obtain loans from commercial banks
fair trade
international trade that provides greater equity to workers, small businesses and consumers (1/3 of price goes to producer, fair wages and benefits for employers, and direct connection of costumers and workers)
cooperative stores
member owned/governed stores that operate for benefit of its members according to common principles agreed on by international cooperative community
sustainable development goals
reduce disparities between LDCs and MDCs
hearth of modern industry
UK in the late 1700s
- steam engine was created in 1769
cottage industry
home-based manufacturing
which industries were most impacted by the industrial revolution?
- iron
- transportation (more laborers and shipping)
- textiles (mechanized)
- chemicals (could bleach and dye things faster)
- food processing (canned goods = more factory workers)
animate power
power supplied by animals and people
biomass fuel
power created from burning raw material or converting them to charcoal, methane, or alcohol
- wood, plant material, animal waste
fossil fuel
- energy source formed from the residue of plants and animals buried millions of years ago
- 5/6 of world’s energy comes from coal, petroleum, and natural gas
industrial regions
- North America: used to big on the East Coast US and Southeast Canada, now big in South US and LA and Mexico along the border
- Europe: 1st to industrialize; major centers in Russia and Germany
- East Asia: started with Japan, China is the leading manufacturer
- China, US, and Japan account for 1/2 the world’s industrial output
situation factors
transporting material to and from factories (meant to minimize transportation costs)
site factors
unique characteristics of a location - Labor: more expensive to manufacture goods in an MDC due to high wages
- Capital: for new industry to expand, people need loans (from MDCs)
- Land: now mostly in rural areas cheap and more space) and by highways
proximity to inputs
plants are closer to inputs if cost of transporting raw materials is greater than cost of transporting products to consumers
proximity to markets
plants are close to customers if cost of transporting raw material is less than the cost of transporting products to consumers
non-metallic minerals
make up 90% of minerals humans use (building stones, gems, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sulfur)
metallic minerals
help fashion machinery, vehicles, etc (good conductors of heat, malleable, ductile)
ferrous alloys
contain iron
nonferrous alloys
products that don’t contain iron and steel (aluminium, copper, precious metals)
bulk reducing industry
inputs weigh more than final products (coal production)
- coal production:
1) mining (bulky)
2) concentration (near mines)
3) smelting (by inputs)
4) refining (near smelters)
5) manufacturing (near markets)
bulk gaining industry
makes something that gains volume/weight during production (located by markets)
- ex. beverage bottling
single market manufacturing
specialized manufacturing with only 1 or 2 customers (close to customers – ex. zipper makers)
perishable products
located close to markets
difference in transportation costs
- shipping: cheapest; slow
- trucks: short distance; cheap unloading/loading; better for day trips
- trains: multi-day trips; harder to load/unload (expensive)
- air: most expensive; used for small bulk, high value items
break of bulk point
location where transfer among transportation modes is possible
- cost rises each tie inputs/products are transferred from a mode
just-in-time delivery
shipment of parts and materials to arrive at factories moments before they’re needed
- supplies must be close to consumers
- can lead to disruptions (natural hazards, traffic, labor unrest)
labor intensive industry
industry where wages and compensation are a high percent of expenses
where are fossil fuels located?
- coal: mid-latitude countries (China = 50%, LDCs = 25%, MDCs = 25%)
- petroleum: under sea on Persian Gulf and North Sea and areas that used to be underseas (Russia, Saudi Arabia = 1/4 of supply, SW Asia and Central Asia = 50%, MDCs = 25%)
- natural gas: deposited from sea floor (1/3 in Russia and SW Asia, 1/3 in LDCs, 1/3 in MDCs)
4 types of energy consumption in the US:
- industries (natural gas = 40%, coal = 30%, petroleum)
- transpiration: petroleum
- homes: natural gas and coal
- commercial: same as homes
who uses more energy, MDCs or LDCs?
LDCs use more energy, but MDCs use more energy per capita
- China is leader in energy consumption
OPEC
help oil rich countries gain control over their oil, led to increased oil prices
proven resource
supply of energy remaining in deposits that’ve been discovered
where are fossil fuel reserves located?
- coal: 50% in MDCs, 50% in LDCs (US has 25%)
- natural gas: less than 10% in MDCs, 25% in Russia, 30% in Iran and Qatar
- petroleum: LDCs have 87% in SW and Central Asia (Venezuela, Saudi Arabia, Canada, Iran, and Iraq have 2/3)
potential reserve
supply deposits that are undiscovered but though to exist
unconventional resource
lack economically and environmentally feasible extraction methods
- oil sands: covered in tar (Canada, Venezuela, Russia)
- hydraulic fracturing: “fracking”; break rocks to release natural gas
world oil trade
- Russia -> Europe
- Southwest Asia -> Europe and Japan
- US and Europe import 50% of their oil
- Japan imports 90% of its oil
where is nuclear power used?
- 30 countries (11 LDCs, 19 MDCs)
- 2/3 in MDCs, 1/3 in Europe and 1/3 in North America
fission
energy released by splitting uranium atoms in a controlled environment
- results in radioactive waste and melt downs
- waste must be stored for thousands of years
- uranium is not renewable
- Russia and US have most nuclear weapons
fusion
fusing hydrogen atoms to form helium (not a thing yet)
nonrenewable energy
resources form too slowly that they can’t really be renewed
renewable energy
resources with an unlimited supply
hydroelectric power
generating electricity from movement of water
- 2nd most popular source of energy after coal (2/3 in MDCs, 1/3 in LDCs)
- big in BRICS
wind power
big in US, China, and Europe
- expensive
geothermal energy
energy from hot water or steam
passive solar energy system
captures energy without using special devices
- prominent with windows and dark substances
active solar energy system
collect solar energy and convert it to heat energy or electricity
- direct conversion: solar radiation is captured and converted to electrical energy
- indirect conversion: solar radiation is converted to heat and then electricity
pollution
occurs when more waste is added than air, water, land resources can handle
air pollution
concentration of trace substances at a greater level that occurs in average air
- caused by sulfur dioxide, solid particulates, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitro-oxides
greenhous effect
increase in earth’s temperature caused by CO2 trapping radiation emitted by surface
ozone
gas that absorbs ultraviolet radiation in stratosphere
chlorofluorocarbons
break down ozone layers (global ban on use)
acid deposition
accumulation of acids on earth’s surface
acid precipitation
conversion of sulfur and nitrogen oxides to acids that come to earth as rain, snow, etc
- damages water, hurts plants and animals, leads to corrosion
what goes into urban air pollution?
- carbon monoxide
- hydrocarbons
- photo-chemical smog
particulates
non-consumptive water usage
use of water that’s returned to nature as a liquid
consumptive water usage
water that evaporates rather than returns to nature as a liquid
- US has highest per capita consumption of water
biochemical oxygen demand
amount of oxygen aquatic bacteria need to decompose a given amount of organic waste
point source pollution
- enters a body of water at a specific location
- small and easier to control
- water-using manufacturers: factories and power plants use water to cool machines (lots of waste water)
- municipal sewage: lack of sewage results in untreated water going to drinking water
nonpoint source pollution
- comes from a large, diffuse area
- comes from agriculture (fertilizers/pesticides)
where does the most trash come from?
residents
sanitary landfill
- most common place for disposal of solid waste in the US
- great pacific garbage patch is largest landfill in the world
new international division labor
selective transfer of some jobs to developing countries
outsourcing
turning over responsibility for production to indepedent suppliers
vertical integration
a company control all phases of a complex production process
- at odds with outsourcing as it is more traditional, but is more expensive
maquilladoras
mexican plants by US border (mexico has cheap labor and few labor regulations, making it appealing to US through NAFTA)
BRICS
Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa
right to work
law requiring factories to maintain an open shop (company and unions can’t make joining a union a mandatory part of the contract)
convergence regions
Eastern and Southern Europe where income is below Europe’s average
competitive and employment regions
traditional core manufacturing areas with job loss
territorial cooperation regions
near EU and neighbors’ borders
which country in Europe is leading in economic growth?
spain
fordist production
mass production; workers perform one specific task repeatedly
post-fordist production
lean and flexible production
- teams
- problem solving
- leveling (every worker is alike)
- productivity
recycling
separation, collection, processing, marketing and reuse of unwanted materials
remanufacturing
rebuilding of a product to specifications of original manufacturer using old and new material
- paper mills, steel mills, plastic converters, iron and stool foundries
which countries have the highest and lowest HDI?
- Switzerland has the highest
- South Sudan has the lowest
dependency theory
the notion that resources flow from a periphery of poor and underdeveloped states to a core of wealthy states
commodity dependence
a country is considered to be dependent on commodity exports when commodities are the majority of its exports. The combination of a high concentration of exports and the large share of commodities in those exports is often linked to underdevelopment.
complementarity
two places are said to exhibit a degree of complementary if each offers something to the other that is needs or wants
comparative advantage
the ability of one country to make a certain product more efficiently than another product
free trade
no restrictions on imports or exports such as tariffs or import quotas (good for MDCs)
trade agreements
- USMCA
- EU
- WTO
- Mercosur
- OPEC
special economic zones
area of a country where business and trade laws are different from the rest of the country. They have goals to get business to invest in that area due to lower taxes, less regulations, etc.
free trade zones
duty free areas offering warehousing, storage, and distribution facilities for trade, transshipment, and re-export operations
export processing zones
officially designated for manufacturing, often have accessible distribution facilities, lax environmental restrictions, and attractive tax exemptions in order to attract foreign corporations
least cost theory
firms locate their production facilities in the place that minimizes transportation costs, agglomeration costs, and labor costs
agglomeration
many companies from the same industry come together in a collectivly small area to draw from the same set of collective resources
deglomeration
when firms leave an agglomerated region to start up in a distant, new place
footloose firms
industries that have no real inclination to be located close to either raw material or primary markets, since their products are so lightweight and valuable (diamonds)
brown fields
abandoned land, previously used for industrial purposes
multiplier effect
new injections of money into the economy lead to more spending, which leads to more injection
technopoles/growth poles
the concentration of highly innovative and technically advanced industries that stimulate economic development in linked businesses and idustries
