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ap bio semester 1 exam review Flashcards

1
Q

emergent property

A

result from the arrangement and interaction of parts within a system

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2
Q

reductionism

A

reduction of complex systems to smaller components that are more manageable to study

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3
Q

what organisms are eukaryotic cells

A

plants, animals, fungi, humans

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4
Q

what organisms are prokaryotic cells

A

bacteria and archaea

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5
Q

Dna is the ______________ of genes

A

substance

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6
Q

Chromosomes contain most of a cell’s genetic material in the form of _________

A

DNA

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7
Q

each chromosome has _____ long DNA molecule

A

one

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8
Q

Each DNA molecule is made up of ____ long chains arranged in a double helix

A

two

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9
Q

Each link of a chain is one of four kinds of chemical building blocks called ________

A

nucleotides

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10
Q

what is a genome

A

an organism’s entire set of genetic instructions

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11
Q

what is the biological medium on earth

A

water!!!!!!!!

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12
Q

what type of molecule is water

A

polar

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13
Q

what does polarity allow water molecules to do

A

form hydrogen bonds with each other

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14
Q

4 of water’s properties?

A

-Cohesive behavior
-Ability to moderate temperature
-Expansion upon freezing
-Versatility as a solvent

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15
Q

what is the specific heat of water

A

1 cal/g/degrees C

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16
Q

why is water’s specific heat traced back to hydrogen bonding

A

Heat is absorbed when hydrogen bonds break
Heat is released when hydrogen bonds form

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17
Q

heat of vaporization

A

heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas

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18
Q

why does ice float in water

A

because hydrogen bonds in ice are more “ordered,” making ice less dense

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19
Q

what temp does water reach its greatest density at

A

4 degrees C

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20
Q

what is a hydration shell

A

each ion is surrounded by a sphere of water molecules

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21
Q

why are certain molecules are hydrophobic

A

they have relatively nonpolar bonds

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22
Q

what does it mean for water to be in a dynamic state of equillibrium

A

water molecules dissociate at the same rate at which they are being reformed

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23
Q

Acidic solutions have pH values _____ than 7

A

less

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24
Q

Basic solutions have pH values ____ than 7

A

greater

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25
Q

how does carbon form chains

A

by bonding to itself

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26
Q

what are the functional groups (practice formulas on paper)

A

hydroxyl
carboxyl
amino
phosphate
carbonyl
methyl
sulfhydryl

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27
Q

macromolecules

A

large molecules composed of smaller ones

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28
Q

polymer

A

long molecule consisting of smaller building blocks–> monomers

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29
Q

monomers

A

make up polymers, specific monomers make up macromolecules

amino acids are the monomers that make up proteins

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30
Q

dehydration synthesis (look at diagrams)

A

chemical reaction that involves the loss of water from the reacting molecule or ion
allows for monomers to form larger molecules

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31
Q

hydrolysis (look at diagrams)

A

a compound is broken down into simpler compounds, and is accompanied by the chemical incorporation of water

allows polymers to disassemble

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32
Q

what are the 4 macromolecules

A

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids

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33
Q

what are carbohydrates

A

serve as fuel and building material
includes sugars and their polymers (mono, di, and polysaccharides)

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34
Q

monosaccharide

A

simple sugar, may be linear, can form rings

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35
Q

disaccharide

A

sugar that contains 2 monosaccharides, joined by glycosidic linkage

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36
Q

polysaccharide

A

sugar that consists of multiple monosaccharides, ex starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin

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37
Q

Sugars

A

consist of mono, di, and poly saccharides, used for fuel, converted into organic molecules

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38
Q

starch

A

storage polysaccharide, polymer of sugar, consists of glucose monomers, major storage form of glucose in plants

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39
Q

glycogen

A

storage polysaccharide, consists of glucose monomers, major storage form of glucose in animals

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40
Q

cellulose

A

structural polysaccharide polymer of glucose
major component of tough walls that enclose plants
held together by hydrogen bonds, difficult to digest
cows have microbes in stomach to facilitate process

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41
Q

chitin

A

structural polysaccharide
found in exoskeleton of arthropods
used as surgical threads

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42
Q

lipids

A

diverse group of hydrophobic molecules
only class of biological molecules that DONT consist of polymers
share common trait of being hydrophobic

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43
Q

fats

A

is a lipid
constructed from 2 types of smaller molecules
- single glycerol and 3 fatty acids
2 types

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44
Q

fatty acid

A

organic acids with long carbon chain

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45
Q

saturated fatty acid

A

butter
max number of hydrogen atoms
no double bonds

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46
Q

unsaturated fatty acids

A

multiple hydrogen bonds
double bonds cause bending

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47
Q

phospholipid

A

2 fatty acids
polar head (hydrophilic)
fatty acid tail (hydrophobic)
bilayer arrangement in cell membrane

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48
Q

steroids

A

lipids
carbon skeleton
4 fused rings
contains cholesterol
- found in cell membranes
-precursor for hormones

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49
Q

proteins

A

enzyme
acts as catalyst
speeds up chemical reactions
polymer of amino acids

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50
Q

amino acids

A

monomer of protein
contains alpha carbon, r-group, and amino and carboxyl function groups
covalently bonded called peptide bonding

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51
Q

polypeptide

A

polymer (chains) of amino acids with peptide bonds
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen make up polypeptide backbone

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52
Q

structures of proteins

A

primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
determines function

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53
Q

primary structure

A

unique sequence of amino acids in polypeptide
AA end and carboxyl end

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54
Q

secondary structure

A

hydrogen bonded
folding and coiling of polypeptide into repeating configuration
a (alpha) helix
B (beta) pleated sheet

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55
Q

tertiary structure

A

hydrogen bonded
3 dimensional shape of polypeptide
results from interactions between amino acids and R group
hydrophobic interactions and van der waals
disulfide bridge
hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds

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56
Q

quaternary structure

A

overall protein structure that results from aggregation of 2+ polypeptide subunits
contains amino acid subunits

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57
Q

protein configuration

A

depends on physical and chemical conditions of proteins environment

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58
Q

protein configuration

A

depends on physical and chemical conditions of proteins environment
- temp, pH

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59
Q

denaturation

A

protein unravels and loses it native conformation

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60
Q

chaperonins

A

protein molecules that assist in proper folding of other proteins

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61
Q

nucleic acids

A

store and transfer hereditary info
contains genes
program amino acid sequence of polypeptides
made of nucleotide sequences on DNA
- DNA
-RNA

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62
Q

DNA

A

stores info for synthesis of specific proteins
found in cell nucleus
directs RNA synthesis (transcription)
directs protein synthesis through RNA (translation)

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63
Q

structure of nucleic acids

A

exist as polymers–> polynucleotides

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64
Q

polynucleotides

A

consist of monomers called nucleotides

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65
Q

nucleotides

A

sugar and phosphate and nitrogenous base

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66
Q

nucleotide monomers

A

made up of nucleotides
- sugar base and phosphate groups
deoxyribose- sugar in DNA
ribose- sugar in RNA
DNA (nitrogen base)
- C-G and T-A
RNA (nitrogen base)
-C-G and U-A

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67
Q

purines

A

double ring
(A,G)

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68
Q

pyrimidine

A

single ring
(C,T,U)

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69
Q

purine must always be with ___

A

pyrimidine

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70
Q

nucleotide polymer

A

made up of nucleotides linked by OH on 3’ carbon of one nucleotide and phosphate on 5’ carbon

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71
Q

DNA double helix

A

cellular DNA molecules
2 polynucleotides spiral around imaginary axis-> forms double helix
consists of 2 antiparallel nucleotide strands
sugar phosphate backbone
base pair joined by hydrogen bonding

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72
Q

base pairing

A

nitrogenous bases found in DNA
form hydrogen bonds in complementary fashion
adenine (A) and thymine (T)
cytosine (C) and guanine (G)

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73
Q

ester bond

A

the bond between an alcohol group (-OH) and a carboxylic acid group (-COOH), formed by the elimination of a molecule of water (H2O)

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74
Q

fibrous proteins

A

made up of polypeptide chains that are elongated and fibrous in nature or have a sheet like structure

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75
Q

globular proteins

A

spherical proteins, one of the common protein types, somewhat water-soluble

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76
Q

light microscope

A

visible light passes through a specimen and then through glass lenses, which magnify the image
cant see organelles

77
Q

eukaryotes

A

differentiated cells
protists, fungi, animals, plants

78
Q

prokaryotes

A

single cell, no nucleus
archae, bacteria

79
Q

similarites between eukaryotes and prokaryotes

A

plasma membrane, semifluid substance (cytosol), chromosomes, ribosomes

80
Q

differences between eukaryotes and prokaryotes

A

prokaryotes- no nucleus, DNA in unbound region (nucleoid), no membrane bound organelles, cytoplasm bound by plasma membrane
eukaryotes- DNA in nucleus bounded by membranous nuclear envelope, membrane bound organelles, cytoplasm in region between plasma membrane and nucleus, larger than prokaryotes

81
Q

plasma membrane

A
  • selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service volume of every cell
  • general structure is double layer of phospholipids
  • 4 ring carbon and cholesterol
82
Q

limits to cell size

A

cells have greater surface area relative to volume
metabolism sets limits

83
Q

what do eukaryotes have that partitions cell into organelles

A

internal membranes

84
Q

what are the eukaryotic organelles

A

nucleus, nuclear lamina, chromatin, chromosomes, nucleolus, ribosomes, endomembrane system, mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts, cytoskeleton

85
Q

nucleus functions

A

1) houses genetic material
2) most conspicuous organelles
3) nuclear envelope
4) nuclear membrane
5) pores

86
Q

nuclear envelope

A

encloses nucleus separating from cytoplasm

87
Q

nuclear membrane

A

double membrane, all consists of lipid bilayer

88
Q

nuclear pores

A

regulate entry and exit of molecules from nucleus

89
Q

nuclear lamina

A

maintains shape of nucleus, composed of protein (lamin)

90
Q

chromatin

A

DNA and proteins form genetic materials

91
Q

chromosomes

A

condensed chromatin

92
Q

nucleolus

A

located within nucleus
contains ribosomes
site of ribosomal RNA synthesis
carries out protein synthesis
found in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes

93
Q

nucleolus protein synthesis

A

in cytosol–> free ribosomes
outside of endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope–> bound ribosomes

94
Q

endomembrane system

A

regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in cell
contains
- nuclear envelope
- endoplasmic reticulum
- golgi apparatus
- lysosomes
- vacuoles
- plasma membrane
all are either continuous or connected via transfer by vesicles

95
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A

accounts for more than half of total membrane in eukaryotic cells
continuous with membrane
2 regions- smooth and rough ER
plants and animals, not bacteria

96
Q

smooth ER

A

lacks ribosomes
synthesizes lipids
metabolizes carbohydrates
detoxifies poison
stores calcium

97
Q

rough ER

A

ribosomes studding surface
bound ribosomes secrete glycoproteins
distribute transport vesicles (proteins surrounded by membrane)
membrane factory for cell

98
Q

glycoprotein

A

on outside of plasma membrane, compromise protein and carbohydrate chains, membrane carbohydrates covalently bonded to proteins

99
Q

golgi apparatus

A

shipping and receiving center
consists of cisternae
modifies products of ER
manufactures certain macromolecules
sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

100
Q

cisternae

A

flattened membranous sacs
entire thing is the golgi

101
Q

lysosomes

A

membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that digest macromolecules
digestive compartments
endures phagocytosis and autophagy

102
Q

what do the enzymes do in lysosomes

A

hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids

103
Q

phagocytosis

A

cells can engulf another and forms food vacuoles
fuses with food vacuoles and digests molecule

104
Q

autophagy

A

uses enzymes to recycle cells organelles macromolecules

105
Q

vacuoles

A

diverse maintenance compartment
- contractile vacuole
- food vacuole
- central vacuole

106
Q

contractile vacuole

A

found in freshwater protists
pump excess water out of cells

107
Q

food vacuole

A

formed by phagocytosis

108
Q

central vacuole

A

found in many mature plant cells
hold organic compounds and water

109
Q

metabolic activity group

A

mitochondria, chloroplast, peroxisome, cytoskeleton

110
Q

mitochondria

A

sites of cellular respiration that generates ATP
in eukaryotic cells
contains cristae
mitochondrial matrix and intermembrane space

111
Q

cristae

A

smooth outer and inner mitochondrial membrane folded together
presents large surface area for enzymes to synthesize proteins

112
Q

mitochondrial matrix and intermembrane space

A

inner membrane creates 2 compartments
mitochondrial matrix catalyzes metabolic steps of CR

113
Q

chloroplast

A

found in plants and algae (plants and other green organs)
sites of photosynthesis
belongs to plastids (organelle family)
contains chlorophyll (green pigment)
contains enzymes and other molecules functioning in photosynthesis
thylakoids for structure

114
Q

thylakoids

A

membranous stacks that form granum and stroma (internal fluid)

115
Q

peroxisomes

A

oxidative organelle
specialized metabolic compartments bounded by single membrane
produce hydrogen peroxide and convert to water
oxygen is used to break down different types of molecules

116
Q

mitochondria and chloroplast structure

A

change energy to form to another
not part of endomembrane system
double membrane
contain proteins made by free ribosomes
contain own DNA

117
Q

cytoskeleton

A

network of fibers extending throughout cytoplasm
organizes cell structure and activity, anchors organelles
- microtubules
- microfilaments
- intermediate filaments
supports cells, maintains shape
interacts with moto proteins (mobility)
may regulate biochemical activities
vesicles travel along ‘monorail’ provided by cytoskeleton

118
Q

microtubule

A

thicket component

119
Q

microfillament

A

thinnest component

120
Q

intermediate

A

fibers w diameters in a middle

121
Q

microtubules

A

shape cell
guide movement of organelles
separates chromosomes during cell division
contains centrosomes and centrioles
contains cilia and flagella

122
Q

centrosomes and centrioles

A

microtubules grow out from centrosome, near nucleus
centrosome is microtubule- organizing center
animal cells
- centrosome has pair of centrioles

123
Q

cilia and flagella

A

microtubules control beating of cilia and flagella (locomotor appendages of cells)
share common ultrastructure

124
Q

cilia and flagella ultrastructure

A

core of microtubules sheathed by plasma membrane
basal body anchors cilium or flagella
motor protein (dynein) drives bending movements of cilia or flagellum

125
Q

microfilaments (actin filaments)

A

built as twisted double chain of actin subunits
bears tension, resists pulling forces in cell
forms 3D network (cortex) inside plasma membrane
- helps support cell shape
bundles of microfilaments make up core of microvilli intestinal cells
function in cell mobility and contain myosin protein (also actin)
muscles cells have thousands of actin filaments arranged parallel to one another
thicker filaments compose of myosin interdigitate with thinner actin fibers
localized contraction brought about by actin and myosin
-drives amoeboid movement

126
Q

pseudopodia

A

cellular extensions
extend and contract through reversible assembly and contraction of actin subunits into microfilaments

127
Q

cytoplasmic streaming

A

circular flow of cytoplasm within cell
streaming speeds distribution of materials within cell
plant cell
- actin- myosin interactions and sol-gel transformations drive cytoplasmic streaming

128
Q

cell walls of plants

A

extracellular structure that distributes plant cells from animal cells
prokaryotes, fungi, some protists
protects plant cell, maintains shape, prevents excessive water uptake
make of cellulose fibers embedded in polysaccharides and proteins

129
Q

how many layers do cell walls have

A

3

130
Q

plasmodesmata

A

channels between adjacent plant cells

131
Q

name major components of cell membrane

A

glycoproteins, glycolipids, phospholipid bilayer, cholesterol, cytoskeleton filaments, integral membrane proteins, peripheral membrane proteins, carbohydrates, fibers of extracellular matrix

132
Q

glycolipid

A

on extracellular surface of cell membrane, membrane carbohydrates covalently bonded to lipids

133
Q

cholesterol

A

in between phospholipids, stabilizes cell membrane

134
Q

cytoskeleton filaments

A

in the cytoplasmic side of membrane, give cell shape and organize cell parts

135
Q

integral membrane proteins

A

within bilayer membranes, penetrates hydrophobic core, helps move molecules across membrane

136
Q

peripheral membrane proteins

A

bound to surface of membrane, helps in communication, support, and molecule transfer

137
Q

carbohydrates (in the membrane)

A

present on extracellular side of membrane (exterior), attached to proteins and form glycoproteins

138
Q

extracellular matrix fibers

A

fills space between cells, in extracellular side of membrane (exterior), helps cell attach and communicate with cells

139
Q

transmembrane protein

A

integral proteins that span the membrane

140
Q

carrier protein

A

transport protein that binds to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across the membrane, undergo subtle change in shape that translocates the solute-binding site across the membrane

141
Q

transport protein

A

allow passage of hydrophilic substances across the membrane, specific for substance it moves, can move solutes against their concentration gradient

142
Q

integrin protein

A

mediate interactions between cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix

143
Q

aquaporins

A

channel proteins that facilitate the passage of water (facilitated diffusion of water)

144
Q

channel protein

A

type of transport protein has hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or ions can useas a tunnel

145
Q

what does cholesterol do in animal cells

A

restrains movement at warmer temperatures and maintains fluidity by preventing tight packing at cooler temperatures

146
Q

6 functions of membrane proteins

A

transport
enzymatic activity
signal transduction
cell-cell recognition
intercellular joining
attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix

147
Q

how can a hydrophobic (nonpolar) molecule pass through the cell membrane

A

can dissolve in the lipid bilayer and pass through membrane rapidly

148
Q

how can a hydrophilic (polar) molecule pass through the cell membrane

A

don’t cross through membrane easily, use facilitated diffusion (carrier and channel proteins) (EX. sugar)

149
Q

how can ions pass through cell membrane

A

facilitated diffusion (carrier and channel proteins and ion channels)

150
Q

how can small molecules pass through cell membrane

A

enter or leave cell through lipid bilayer or by transport proteins

151
Q

how can large molecules pass through cell membrane

A

endocytosis and bulk transport via vesicles

152
Q

what can monosaccharides pass through cell membrane

A

diffusion down the concentration gradient

153
Q

how do carbon dioxide and oxygen cross cell membrane

A

diffusion, moving from area of high concentration to low concentration

154
Q

how does K+ move across cell membrane

A

sodium-pump

155
Q

how does amino acids and starch cross cell membrane

A

facilitated diffusion and carrier and channel proteins

156
Q

active transport

A

moves substances against their concentration gradient requires energy (ATP) performed by specific proteins embedded in membranes
allows cells to maintain concentration gradients that differ from their surroundings

157
Q

sodium-potassium pump

A

type of active transport system
major electrogenic pump of animal cells
PROCESS
1) cytoplasmic Na+ binds to sodium potassium pump
2) Na+ binding stimulates phosphorylation by ATP
3) phosphorylation causes protein to change its shape expelling Na+ to the outside
4) K+ binds on extracellular side and triggers release of phosphate group
5) loss of phosphate group restores protein’s original shape
6) K+ is released and cycle starts over

158
Q

passive transport

A

diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane with no energy required from the cell to make it happen

159
Q

diffusion

A

net movement of molecules from a higher area of concentration to an area of lower concentration (even spreading of molecules)

160
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

transport proteins speed the passive movement of molecules across plasma membrane

161
Q

osmosis

A

diffusion of water across selectively permeable membrane

162
Q

pinocytosis

A

active transport, type of endocytosis, molecules are taken up when extracellular fluid is “gulped” into tiny vesicles (cellular drinking)

163
Q

phagocytosis

A

active transport, type of endocytosis, cell engulfs a particle in a vacuole (cellular eating), vacuole fuses with lysosome to digest particle

164
Q

3 types of endocytosis

A

pinocytosis, phagocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis

165
Q

endocytosis

A

active transport
cell takes in macromolecules by forming vesicles from plasma membrane, reversal of exocytosis

166
Q

exocytosis

A

active transport
transport vesicles migrate to the membrane, fuse with it, and release their contents, used by secretory cells to export their products

167
Q

isotonic

A

solute concentration is the same as that inside the cell; no net water movement across cell membrane

168
Q

hypotonic solution

A

solute concentration is less than that inside the cell; cell gains water

169
Q

hypertonic solution

A

solute concentration is greater than that inside the cell; cell loses water

170
Q

osmoregulation

A

the control of water balance, is a necessary adaptation for life in such environments

171
Q

amphipathic

A

molecule that contains both hydrophobic (nonpolar) and hydrophilic (polar) parts

172
Q

receptor- mediated endocytosis

A

binding of ligands to receptors triggers vesicle formation

173
Q

ligand

A

any molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule

174
Q

how does bulk transport occur

A

endocytosis and exocytosis

175
Q

cotransport

A

occurs when active transport of a solute indirectly drives transport of another solute

176
Q

electrogenic pump

A

a transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane

177
Q

proton pump

A

main electrogenic pump of plants, bacteria, and fungi

178
Q

electrochemical gradient

A

two combined forces drive diffusion of ions across membranes
chemical and electrical force

179
Q

chemical force

A

the ion’s concentration gradient

180
Q

electrical force

A

the effect of the membrane potential on the ion’s movement

181
Q

membrane potential

A

voltage difference across a membrane

182
Q

why is facilitated diffusion passive

A

the solute moves down the concentration gradient

183
Q

ion channel

A

channel protein that open or close in response to a stimulus (gated channel)

184
Q

plasmolysis

A

in hypertonic environment plant cells lose water, membrane pulls away from wall, death to plant

185
Q

what do cell walls help to maintain

A

water balance

186
Q

turgid

A

plant cell in hypotonic solution (ideal) swells until the wall opposes uptake, causes cell to become firm

187
Q

flaccid

A

plant cell and surroundings in isotonic solution with no net movement of water into cell, plant becomes limp and may wilt

188
Q

what problems do hypertonic and hypotonic solutions create

A

osmotic

189
Q

tonicity

A

the ability of a solution to cause a cell to lose or gain water

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