ANT 001 Midterm KEY TERMS Flashcards
Anthropology
holistic study of humans requiring time depth
Ultimate explanations
Why a behavior exists, adaptive, phylogenetic
Proximate explanations
how does the behavior work
Prescriptive questions
questions with unknowable answers
Descriptive questions
questions with knowable answers
Evolution
gradual development of all kinds of living organisms over time
Natural selection
organisms better suited to their environment will survive and produce more offspring
Directional selection
natural selection favors individuals with traits that are different from the average, which changes the average
Stabilizing selection
natural selection favors the average trait, so it maintains the status quo
Balancing selection
natural selection maintains genetic variation by favoring multiple alleles that are actively maintained in the gene pool of a population
Variation
differences between individual species
(Complex) adaptation
adaptation that requires multiple, specific mutations to create a new complex trait (the human brain, the eye, bird wings etc)
Taxonomy
classification of organisms
Convergent evolution
related traits or features in unrelated species (mole fingers in mole and insect)
Lamarckism
theory that changes in organisms lifetimes could be transmitted to their offspring (giraffes stretching their necks)
Darwin/Wallace
evolutionary scientists, more successful organisms will have more surviving offspring
Uniformitarianism
Earth has always changed in uniform ways and the present is the key to the past
Inheritance
acquiring genes/traits from a parent
Mendel’s laws (segregation & independent assortment)
- particles of inheritance separate: characteristics of organisms are determined by two particles, one from each parent
- independent assortment: particles for different traits are independently inherited
Phenotypes
observable characteristics from genotype and environment
Genotypes
genetic constitution of an individual organism
Gene expression
process by which information in a gene is turned into a function
Gametes
reproductive cell
Mutations (synonymous & non-synonymous)
change in the DNA sequence (s= no change in protein sequence, ns= change)
Single Nucleotide Polymorphism
variation in a base pair DNA sequence
Mitosis vs. Meiosis
Mitosis- somatic cell division resulting in copies of paired chromosomes
Meiosis- gamete cell division resulting in 1 of the paired chromosomes
Chromosome (autosomes & sex)
Humans have 22 pairs autosomes and 1 pair sex chromosomes with X and Y
Recombination and linkage
Recombination- chromosomes tangle and break during meiosis and bits are swapped
Linkage- genes on the same chromosome tend to stay together during meiosis
Allele (dominant and recessive)
one of two or more alternate forms of a gene that are found on the same place on a chromosome
Locus
specific location on a gene
Random mating
mating between organisms that is not controlled
Hardy-Weinberg relationship
a population will reach equilibrium after one generation of random mating
Gene frequencies
how common an allele is in a population
Population genetics
study of genetic variation within and among populations
Continuous trait
distribution of phenotypes in a population varies on a continuum
Quantitative genetics
study of genetics based on underlying phenotypic variation
Neutral evolutionary processes
Mutation, genetic drift, gene flow
Mutation
change in the DNA base
Genetic drift
change in allele frequencies in a population that is finite in size
Gene flow
migration, movement of alleles from one population to another
Genetic distance
how genetically dissimilar two species are
Constraints on adaptation
global and local optimum, disequilibria, physical constraints (elephants can’t fly like dumbo)
Correlated traits & pleiotropy
pleiotropy- one gene affects multiple traits at the same time, if one gene changes, multiple genotypic traits change
Disequilibria
when environments change adaptation takes time
Local optimum
when a population is stuck at just a good solution (whales hold breath)
Heritability
how well differences in people’s genes account for differences in their traits
Hidden variation
minor changes in DNA that don’t cause visible differences but allow population to move beyond original phenotype
Plasticity
ability of an organism to adapt to their environment
From genes to proteins
stretches of RNA called introns are removed, leaving only exons which code for proteins
Haplotypes
combination of alleles or SNP’s that are inherited together
Nuclear vs. mtDNA
mtDNA sequences are frequently identical between different people
Patterns of human genetic variation
influenced by genetic drift, gene flow, mutation, natural selection
Within & between group variation
most genetic variation occurs within groups rather than between them
Race vs. ancestry
cannot determine ancestry by race, race is a social construct
Clinal variation
human variation is gradual across geography, not discrete
Human phenotypic variation
natural selection or neutral evolutionary processes
Genetic effects
caused by mutations in germ cell (gamete) that lead to permanent changes in genetic material
Environmental effects
environment can affect the phenotype
Skull form variation
environment can influence between-group variation in head shape
Skin tone variation
skin pigmentation correlated with latitude and conversantly evolved
Altitude adaptations
less oxygen goes into blood with increasing altitude, high altitude groups have larger chests and lung capacities, higher hemoglobin
Cultural evolution (mechanisms)
Cumulative culture
innovations are incorporated into population’s skills over time and built upon further
Gene-culture co-evolution
genetic adaptations and cultural adaptations coexist and often work together to produce an outcome
Social enhancement
observing others increases the chance that individuals will learn the behavior on their own
Observational learning
individuals learn behavior by observing others
Cultural transmission
cultural traits transmitted throughout life
Conformity
changing behavior to meet socially accepted standards
Sexual selection
natural selection through preference by one sex of characteristics of another sex
Reproductive success
ability to mate and pass down genes to a future offspring
Fitness
organisms’ ability to survive and reproduce in a particular environment
Bateman’s principles
- mating success influences reproductive success in males more than in females
- males vary more than females in how many mates they have
- males vary more than females in how many offspring they have
Limits on reproductive success to different sexes
Females - resources
Males - availability of a mate
Intersexual selection
favors traits that make one sex more attractive to the other (peacock feathers)
Intersexual selection
favors traits that make individuals successful in competition with others (elk battling with antlers)
Scramble competition
males increase mating success by getting access to females first
Contest competition
males increase mating success by preventing other males from mating
Sexual dimorphism
difference in size or appearance between the sexes of an animal
Sperm competition
results from scramble competition, sperm production and quality
Altruism
being selfless for the well-being of others
Coefficient of relatedness
measure of probability that two individuals share the same allele
Hamilton’s rule
benefits to recipient (B) x coefficient of relatedness (r) >cost to actor
Inclusive fitness
direct fitness (rs of an individual) + indirect fitness (impact individual has on the survival and reproduction of relatives)
Natural selection works on level of individual (genes) or group?
both
Naturalistic fallacy
just because you can, or you evolved a certain way, doesn’t mean you should
