Animal welfare, health and husbandry (SA4) Flashcards
1
Q
What is the Animal Welfare Act (2006)?
A
- To prevent suffering
- Legal duty of care to be fulfilled by owners and keepers (5 freedoms)
- Improvement notice can be served if needs not met
- Notice outlines steps to meet needs and time period
- If no improvement, steps can be taken, including prosecution
2
Q
What are the 5 welfare needs?
A
- Need for suitable environment
- Need for suitable diet
- Need to be able to exhibit normal behaviour
- Need to be house with or apart from other animals
- Need to be protected from pain, suffering, injury and disease
3
Q
What does DEFRA stand for?
A
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
4
Q
What have DEFRA developed that can be used as a reference guide by the public and professionals caring for animals?
A
Codes of practice for the welfare of dogs, cats, horses, ponies, donkeys and non-human primates.
5
Q
What do the DEFRA codes of practice outline?
A
What steps need to be taken to meet welfare needs in relation to the Animal Welfare Act (2006).
RSPCA and other enforcement agencies use these to demonstrate best practice.
6
Q
What are the five freedoms?
A
- Freedom from hunger and thirst; ready access to food and fresh water
- FF discomfort; appropriate environment, shelter and comfortable rest area
- FF pain, injury or disease; prevention, rapid diagnosis and treatment
- F to express normal behaviour; sufficient space, proper facilities, company of animals own kind
- FF fear and distress; conditions and treatment that avoid mental suffering
7
Q
What does APHA stand for?
A
Animal and Plant Health Agency
8
Q
What is the Animal and Plant Health Agency?
A
Exectutive agency of DEFRA and works on behalf of the Scottish and Welsh government; launched on 1 October 2014
9
Q
What are the roles of APHA?
A
- Identify and control notifiable endemic and exotic diseases in animals
- Scientific research into bacterial, viral and parasitic diseases and vaccines
- Regulates safe disposal of animal by-products to reduce risk of potentially dangerous substances entering the food chain
10
Q
What did the Veterinary Surgeons Act (1966) establish?
A
- Management of veterinary profession
- Registration of veterinary sureons and practitioners
- Regulates professional code of conduct and education
- Allows suspension/cancellation of registration if misconduct
11
Q
What were the amendments to the Veterinary Surgeons Act (1966) in 1991 and 2002?
A
- 1991 - Provision for VNs, Schedule 3 procedures allowed
- 2002 - SVNs allowed to partake in Schedule 3 under supervision
12
Q
How does the Veterinary Surgeons Act (1966) maintain animal welfare?
A
- VS must be qualified and meet minimum standards
- Only VS can practice surgery
- Only RVN can perform certain procedures
- RVNs can only act under direction of VS
- MOP can administer first aid and medication to their own pet
- Ensures VS and RVNs keep up to date with CPD
- VS are regulated and can be suspended in cases of misconduct
13
Q
What does the Schedule 3 amendment to the Veterinary Surgeons Act (1966) allow RVNs to do?
A
- Any medical treatment or minor surgery not entering a body cavity
- Under direction of VS
14
Q
What does RSPCA stand for?
A
Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
15
Q
What does RSPB stand for?
A
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
16
Q
What is the role of the RSPCA?
A
Protect all animals and improve living conditions for domestic, farm, wild and aquatic animals by;
- Working for welfare of pet animals
- Improving life and reducing suffering of farm animals
- Working for animals used in research and testing
17
Q
What is the role of the RSPB?
A
Promote conservation and protection of birds and the wider environment through;
- Public awareness campaigns
- Petitions
- Operation of nature reserves throughout the UK
18
Q
What is the Pet Travel Scheme (PETS)?
A
- Allows movement of dogs, cats and ferrets within EU without quarantine
- AHC are required, UK Pet Passports not valid
- Animals with EU Pet Passports can still use these
- Specific documentation must be signed by an Official Veternarian (OV)
19
Q
What are the roles of an animal welfare charity?
A
- Protect and promote animal welfare
- Educate owners
- Rehome animals in suitable, vetted homes
- Alert correct bodies of welfare concerns
- Provide financial support for care of animals
- Advise local authorities
- Produce strict code of conduct with aims and objectives
20
Q
What is the role of an RSPCA inspector?
A
- Investigate complaints regarding cruelty and neglect
- Inspect animal establishments; pet shops, kennel/cattery facilities
- Advise members of public on care of animals
- Inspect events where animals are present; livestock shows
- Rescuing trapped or injured animals and wildlife
- Work with police, local authorities and prepare evidence for court
21
Q
What are the environmental considerations important to animal health in relation to accommodation?
A
- Heating, lighting, ventilation
- Structure, space, size allowing normal behaviour
- Location of services; electricity, water
- Predator/prey contact, minimising stress
- Security
- Social needs, density and mix of animals according to species
22
Q
What does the Animal Activities Act 2018 require of boarding kennels and what advice is given to clients of these?
A
- Location and construction must comply with local gov requirements
- Kennels are licensed by local councils annually
- Only granted if requirements are met
- Advise clients to inspect boarding kennels before leaving their pet there
23
Q
What are the advantages and disadvantages of constructing kennels from concrete?
A
Advantages
- Indestructible
- Easy to clean if sealed
- Cool in summer
- Easily laid
Disadvantages
- Uncomfortable
- Cold in winter
- Porous when not sealed
- Needs planning permission
24
Q
What are the advantages and disadvantages of constructing kennels from wood?
A
Advantages
- Inexpensive
- Warm
- Easy construction
- Movable
Disadvantages
- Not long lasting
- Needs maintenance
- Destructible
- Hard to clean and disinfect
25
What are the advantages and disadvantages of constructing kennels from fibreglass?
Advantages
- Easy to clean
- Warm
- Indestructible
- Durable
- Minimum maintenance
Disadvantages
- Expensive
- Difficult installation
- Damaged by some chemicals
26
What are the advantages and disadvantages of constructing kennels from stainless steel?
Advantages
- Easy to clean
- Indestructible
- Minimum maintenance
Disadvantages
- Expensive
- Cold
- Noisy
27
What are the advantages and disadvantages of constructing kennels from tiles?
Advantages
- Indestructible
Disadvantages
- Cold
- Hard to clean
- Tiles may crack
- Slippery when wet
- Expensive to install
28
What are the advantages and disadvantages of constructing kennels from breeze blocks?
Advantages
- Inexpensive
- Durable
- Good sound-proofing
- Insulating
Disadvantages
- Porous (harbours bacteria)
- Difficult to clean
- Rough
- Unattractive
29
What are the 4 different types of kennels?
- H Block - specialist kennels housing +++ animals
- Parasol - Similar to corridor but animals can't see each other
- Run access - Usually used by pet owners
- Corridor - Most common, suitable for medium to large boarding kennels
30
Why is heat needed in accommodation?
- Provide warmth and comfort
- Rapid drying after cleaning and disinfecting
- Lower risk of respiratory disease as less condensation
- Comfortable working conditions for staff
- Prevent frost and damp damage
31
What temperature should a hospital accommodation remain at?
Between 18 - 21°C for patients that are ill and recovering
32
What temperature should boarding kennels not drop below?
- 7°C
- 10°C for sleeping areas
33
What are the different types of heating methods in accommodation?
- Central heating - may need additional kennel heating
- Electric fan - moved dust, spread airborne diseases, expensive to run
- Underfloor heating - hard to remove f+
- Portable heaters - long time to heat, can get too hot
- Infra-red lamps - can be directed to specific area, needs thermostat to prevent overheating
- Heated beds/pads - Risk of burns and overheating
- Hot water bottles - Risk of burns and scalds
34
It is vital that sufficient day and night lighting is provided in accommodation, why?
Dogs and cats require lighting during daytime hours to
- promote activity
- mental stimulation
- prevent boredom
35
Why is good ventilation essential in animal accomodation?
- Provide clean air for staff and animals, removes odours, fumes and gases
- Reduce risk of airborne disease cross contamination
- Controls humidity
- Assists in temperature regulation
36
What are the 2 types of ventilation?
- Passive - fresh air; open windows, doors, vents - Ineffective ventilation when used alone in kennels
- Active - Actively pulls in fresh air and forces out stale air - extractor fans, air conditioning systems
37
What are 2 important factors when designing accommodation?
- Access to electricity and water
- Minimal noise - sound proofing for reduced stress
38
Accommodation must provide enough space for what?
For each animal to
- Feed
- Sleep
- Sit
- Lie down with limbs extended
- Stretch and move around
39
What are the recommended short-term kennel sizes for dogs up to 60cm at shoulder?
- Height - 1.85m
- Exercise area - 2.46m squared
- Sleep area - 1.9m squared
40
What are the recommended short-term kennel sizes for dogs over 60cm at shoulder?
- Height - 1.85m
- Exercise area - 3.35m squared
- Sleep area - 1.9m squared
41
What are the recommended short-term cattery sizes for one cat?
- Height - 1.85m
- Exercise area - 1.7m squared
- Sleep area - 0.85m squared
42
What are the recommended short-term cattery sizes for up to 3 cats?
- Height - 1.85m
- Exercise area - 3m squared
- Sleep area - 1.5m squared
43
What are the important design points for kennels?
- Separated by solid/chain wire partitions - physical contact impossible
- Easy cleaning
- Easy to control disease
- Impervious, solid and washable surfaces
- Raised sleeping area
44
What are the important design points for exercise yards?
Points to be considered
- Cross-contamination reduction
- Ease of cleaning
- Security
- Prevent fighting
45
What are important design points for catteries?
- Exercise area - access at least twice daily for no less than 1 hour
Enrichment
- Each unit to have hideaway
- Higher area with cat ladder
- Bedding placed in high area
- Provide scratching posts and toys
46
Why is hospital accommodation smaller than kennel accommodation?
Designed to be restrictive as patients require rest
47
What is the minimum recommended size of hospital kennel for a cat?
- Height - 45.72cm
- Width - 45.72cm
- Depth - 72.39cm
48
What is the minimum recommended size of hospital kennel for a small dog?
- Height - 45.72cm
- Width - 60.96cm
- Depth - 72.39cm
49
What is the minimum recommended size of hospital kennel for a medium dog?
Height - 76.2cm
Width - 76.2cm
Depth - 72.39cm
50
What is the minimum recommended size of hospital kennel for a large dog?
- Height - 76.2cm
- Width - 121.92cm
- Depth - 72.39cm
51
What is the minimum recommended size of hospital kennel for a giant dog?
- Height - 91.44cm
- Width - 152.4cm
- Depth - 72.39cm
52
What is the minimum recommended size of hospital kennel for a walk-in kennel?
- Height - 180cm
- Width - 140cm
- Depth - 110cm
53
Which situation might require adaptation for specialist accommodation?
- Whelping bitches
- Long vs short stay hospitalised patients
- Intensive care
- Food chain issues - House prey and predators separately
- Isolation - Non vacc'd/young, dog reactive
54
What is the minumum size for rabbit housing for a pair of average sized rabbit?
3m x 2m x 1m
55
What are the specifications for rabbit housing?
- Able to stand on hind legs without ears touching top
- Able to stretch, exercise and display normal behaviour
- Protected from extremes of temperature, weatherproof
- Access to grazing for part of the day
- Secure from predators
- Environmental enrichment provided
56
What measures should be taken to avoid stress in hospitalised rabbits?
- Away from predator species
- Protected from noise
- Hides provided
- Companion rabbit if applicable
- Litter tray if used to using one
- Temperature 21-23°C max as unable to sweat
57
Why must stress be reduced in hospitalised rabbits?
Stress can lead to
- Delayed recovery
- Anorexia
- Gut stasis
58
Why must accommodation within the veterinary practice be cleaned and disinfected daily?
To prevent and control risk of disease
59
What is the minimum requirement for accommodation cleaning and disinfecting?
- Cleaned and disinfected once daily
- Excretions removed as necessary
- Not to be left wet after cleaning
60
Should hospitalised patients accommodation be cleaned and disinfected more?
Yes
- More than once daily
- Especially with infectious cases
61
What is the definition of quarantine?
Segregation of individuals of unknown disease status for a period, prior to entering new premises or country, to limit risk of disease introduction
62
What is the definition of isolation?
Physical segregation of animal or group of animals suspected or proven to have a contagious disease, to prevent the transmission to other susceptible individuals
63
What is needed for quarantine kennels?
- Security
- No communal areas or drains
- Roofs on runs
- Double inward opening doors
- Good health and safety
- Clear identification
- Hygiene - use of approved disinfectants
- Restricted access
- Good health records
- Vaccinated within 24 hours of arrival
64
An isolation unit should be designed to:
- Prevent cross infection
- Be easily cleaned and disinfected
- Contain minimal equipment
- Contain washing facilities and PPE
- Contain bowls, litter trays, waste bags, thermometers
- Contain ventilation
65
Should visitors be allowed into isolation?
No
66
What is active exercise?
Animal is encouraged to make movements itself, increases muscle strength and improves awareness of position and movement of the body
67
What is passive exercise?
Animal is unable to move on own accord, improved strength, coordination and range of motion. Should be undertaken 2-4 times a day
68
What conditions have a contraindication to active and passive exercise?
- Fractures
- Neoplasia
- Infection
69
When should care be taken while undertaking active or passive exercise?
Must only be performed if directed by a VS
- Geriatric
- Underlying health conditions
70
What exercises can active physiotherapy include?
- Limb stretches - sit then stand
- Walking - over poles, difference surfaces and slopes
- Balance - wobble boards and trampolines
- Hydrotherapy
71
What is passive physiotherapy good for?
- Promote blood and lymph circulation
- Relaxation
- Pain relief
- Prevent stiffness
72
How often should passive physiotherapy be performed on recumbent patients?
Every 2 - 4 hours
73
What exercises can passive physiotherapy include?
- Limb stretches
- Joint mobilisation - Flexion and extension of the limb
- Massage - stroking, effleurage, coupage
74
Why is exercise important?
- Maintain health
- Prevent obesity
- Mental well being
- Prevent behavioural problems
75
What factors need to be considered with exercise?
- Breed
- Age
- Weight
- Physical characteristics
- Underlying health conditions
76
How much exercise is enough for dogs?
- Daily walks may be enough
- Some may need more intense workouts
- Aerobic exercise (enough to pant) 3 times a week
77
What methods of exercise are available for dogs?
- Walking
- Running
- Swimming
- Fetch
- Jumping
- Toys
- Agility
- Flyball
78
How much exercise is enough for cats?
- At least 15 to 30 minutes of activity a day
- Physical exercise and better bonding
79
What methods of exercise are there for cats?
- Climbing
- Hunting
- Jumping
- Running
80
What enrichment can promote exercise for indoor cats?
- Towers
- Fishing toys
- Clockwork mice
- Wheels
- Hiding food
81
Why is exercise important for rabbits?
- Maintain good health and normal behaviour
- Promotes gut mobility
- Can become aggressive, withdrawn, lethargic and obese with lack of exercise
82
How much exercise is enough for rabbits?
- Plenty of time outside cage
- Can roam enclosed area, entire room or house
83
What methods of exercise are available for rabbits?
- Tubes
- Digging
- Running
- Foraging
84
What enrichment is available to promote exercise in rabbits?
- Sandpits
- Scatter feeding
- Runs
- Essential to be predator proof
85
Are the exercise needs the same for every life stage?
- Young animals should not be over exercised, gradually increase exercise as grows within recommended guides
- Recommended guides to exercise for different breeds, important to monitor body score and adjust accordingly
- Senior and geriatric still need exercise to promote muscle and joint health, they should exercise less than younger adults, important to think about body score and other health issues, monitor other things like stiffness and pain
86
Why is grooming important?
- Matted coat can harbour bacteria and hide skin conditions
- Dull or balding coat indicative to medical conditions
- Regular coat inspections when grooming allows for monitoring of changes
87
What are the different categories of dog hair type?
- Smooth coat
- Double coat
- Silky coat
- Wire hair
- Wool coat
- Felt coat
- Corded coat
88
What are the characteristics and examples of smooth coat dogs?
- Boxer, bulldog, dalmatian, dachshund, chihuahua
- Very easy to groom
- Only require brushing and occasional bath
- Bristle brush works well
89
What are the characteristics and examples of double coat dogs?
- Long haired german shepherd, rough collie
- Long top coat, thick soft undercoat
- Don't generally get very dirty or develop matts
- May require occasional trim for ease of care and cleanliness
90
What are the characteristics and examples of silky coat dogs?
- Afghan hound, spaniels, setters, some retrievers, bearded collies
- Medium to long
- Fine texture
- Need to avoid tangling
- Blow dry entire coat with pin brush to ensure no tangles are missed
- Trim paws and pads
91
What are the characteristics and examples of wire hair dogs?
- Border terrier, irish terrier, scottish terrier
- Thick, harsh outer coat, soft under coat
- Wire coat doesn't shed, can be good for allergies
- Best way to groom is plucking with fingers and stripping knife - time consuming
- This stimulates skin and allows new healthy hair to grow
92
What are the characteristics and examples of wool coat dogs?
- Poodle, curly coated retriever, bedlington, irish water spaniel, bichon frise
- Curls
- Tangles and knots easily, can become dry
- Always use conditioning spray before brushing to avoid breakage
- Monthly groom with clippers unless showing
93
What are the characteristics and examples of felt coat dogs?
- Bergamasco
- Ensure felts don't get too wide
- Grooming and bathing needed for skin health
- Lots of coat care for first 3 years while felts develop
94
What are the characteristics and examples of corded coat dogs?
- Hungarian puli, komondor
- Various cord types, small round to wide flat ribbons
- Need to be kept clean and dust free
- Regular bathing keeps cords and skin clean
95
What types of coat can cats have?
- Long hair
- Short hair
- Hairless
- Curly coat
96
What types of hair are cat coats made from?
- Guard hairs - long coarse outer coat
- Awn hairs - intermediate length
- Down hairs - fine, soft, fluffy, closest to skin for insulation
97
What are the characteristics and examples of long hair cats?
- Persian, himalayan, ragdoll
- Need the most grooming assistance
- Hair can grow up to 5 inches and shed lots
- Tangle easily and get debris stuck in hair
- Use fingers to remove tangles
- Once knots removed, use brush to smooth hair
98
What are the characteristics and examples of short hair cats?
- Siamese, Burmese
- Hair usually measures less than 2 inches
- Brush occasionally
- Use comb to remove tangles
- Use brush to smooth coat
99
What are the characteristics and examples of hairless cats?
- Sphynx
- Appear hairless
- Downy hair only, short and close to skin
- Care for skin; remove grease, apply suncream
- Sensitive to extreme temperatures
100
What are the characteristics and examples of curly coat cats?
- Devon rex
- Curly awn hairs, no guard hairs
- Coat easily broken
- Can be greasy, may need bathing
- Sensitive to extreme temperatures
101
Why is nail trimming important?
- Long nails put stress on paw by forcing weight onto back of pad
- Long nails can scratch skin, furniture, etc.
- Cats can develop ingrown claws, especially geriatric
102
How should a nail be cut?
- Cut below quick at 45° angle
- Have blood clotting product on hand in case the quick gets cut
103
What are the symptoms of ear problems?
- Frequently shake head
- Rub ears on floor
- Scratch ear with foot
- Smell/discharge from ears
104
How often should rabbits be brushed?
- Regularly, depending on breed
- Daily during moulting to avoid excessive hair ingestion
105
What tools should be used to groom a rabbit and why?
- Soft bristle or rubber brush
- Skin is thin, sensitive and delicate
- If using water only do spot treatments and dry area immediately
- Loose heat easily
- Clip nails with clippers when necessary
106
What should a handler check a rabbit for when grooming them?
- Remove any matts
- Check for faeces and urine scalding
- Especially important in summer when more flies are around to avoid flystrike
107
What is the canine dental formulae for a puppy?
I (3/3) C (1/1) PM (3/3) M (0/0)
Total number of teeth = 14 x 2 = 28 teeth
These are not present at birth, complete by day 60
108
What is the canine dental formulae for adult dogs?
I (3/3) C (1/1) PM (4/4) M (2/3)
Total number of teeth = 21 x 2 = 42 teeth
Permanent, emerge at 4 months old
109
What is the feline dental formulae for a kitten?
I (3/3) C(1/1) PM (3/2) M (0/0)
Total number of teeth = 13 x 2 = 26 teeth
These are not present at birth, complete by day 60
110
What is the feline dental formulae for an adult cat?
I (3/3) C (1/1) PM (3/2) M (1/1)
Total number of teeth = 15 x 2 = 30 teeth
Permanent, emerge at 4 months old
111
What are the 2 main forms of dental disease?
- Gingivitis
- Periodontitis
112
What is gingivitis?
- Reversible condition
- Inflammation of the gingiva
113
What is periodontitis?
- Irreversible
- Progression from gingivitis
- Affects gingiva, alveolar bone, periodontal ligament and cementum of tooth
- Gums will recede and teeth loosen
114
How are teeth held firmly in the animals mouth?
The peridontium must be healthy
115
What is glossitis?
Inflammation of the tongue
116
What is stomatitis?
Inflammation of the oral mucosa
117
What is gingival overgrowth?
- Enlarged gingiva causing pockets
- Hereditary in some breeds - Boxers
118
What are resorptive lesions?
- Resorption of root
- Progresses to crown, results in holes in enamel
- Gingiva often grow lesions in cats
119
What is furcation?
- Tooth roots divide
- Root becomes exposed and visible
120
What is caries?
- Dental decay
- Usually in molars that trap food
121
What is chronic gingivostomatitis?
- Seen in cats
- Can be associated with viral infections
122
What is plaque?
- Sticky, colourless film of bacteria
- Forms on teeth constantly
- Begin to reform 24 hours after scale and polish
123
What is tartar?
- Accumulation of hardened palque and mineral depositis
- Yellow or brown in colour
- Can only be removed through dental scaling
124
What does Schedule 3 (2002) of The Veterinary Surgeons Act (1966) allow nurses to do?
- Perform minor surgical procedures
- Without entering a body cavity
125
What dental work does the RCVS Code of Conduct state nurses can carry out?
- Nurses and student nurses under direction of a veterinary surgeon
- Routine dental hygiene work
- Extraction of teeth using only fingers
126
What are some precautions needed for the animals safety when scaling and polishing teeth?
- Intubated with well fitting, cuffed ET tube
- Keep patients mouth lower than pharynx
- Use of throat packs, wring out/change regularly
- Ensure patient is kept dry, avoid hypothermia
127
What are some health and safety precautions that should be considered for staff when scaling and polishing teeth?
- Rinse mouth with chlorhexidine prior to scaling to reduce bacterial aerosol
- Ensure room is well ventilated
- PPE - Goggles, mask, gloves
- Consider position and height adjustable equipment to avoid excessive bending over table
128
What needs to be considered with the technique of scaling and polishing teeth?
- Tip of oscillates at ultrasonic frequencies
- Remove larger calculus with forceps
- Never use point of scaler directly on tooth, use edge
- Ensure plently of water coolant is used
- Move off tooth quickly to avoid heat damage
- Polishing removes non-visible plaque and covers minor scratches
129
What is the Triadan Numbering System?
3 digit numbers representing each tooth, found in dental charts
130
What is the veterinary nurses role in dentistry?
- Using dental charts, recording clinical findings
- Dental x-rays
- Scale and polishing
- Dental nurse clinics
131
What is the aim of dental nurse clinics?
- Educate owner on dental homecare to prevent dental disease
- Oral examination
- Discuss dental products
- Demonstrate tooth brushing
- Discuss dental diets
- Prevention is better than cure
132
What are the 2 types of dental homecare?
- Physical - tooth brushing, chews, diets
- Chemical - mouthwash, gels, water additives
133
What should owners avoid to protect their pets teeth?
- Stone chewing
- Hard chews (antlers)
- Tennis balls, abrasive dirt sticks in fibres
134
What is the rabbit dental formulae?
I (2/1) C (0/0) PM (3/2) M (3/3) = 28 teeth
135
How quickly do rabbit teeth grow and why is this important?
- 2mm per week
- Essential to grind down regularly
- Achieved through good diet, grass and hay
136
What are 2 common dental diseases in rabbits?
- Incisor malocclusion
- Molar malocclusion
137
What is incisor malocclusion in rabbits?
- Misalignment of teeth, results in poor wear and overgrowth
- Lower incisors grow into hard palate or protrude from mouth
- Upper incisors curl around lower or impinge on mandible
- Common in brachycephalic breeds
- Can be secondary to overgrown molars
138
What is molar malocclusion in rabbits?
- Misalignment of teeth, results in poor wear and overgrowth
- Abnormal enamel spurs on crowns
- Causes trauma to tongue and cheeks
139
What are the clinical signs of dental disease in rabbits?
- Poor grooming habits
- Ocular and nasal discharge
- Weight loss
- Diarrhoea
- Anorexia
- Gastrointestinal stasis
- Hypersalivation
- Exophthalmos (eye bulging)
- Draining tracts on face/mandible
- Swollen jaw
140
How can rabbit dental disease be treated?
- Teeth should only be burred, never clipped
- Protect soft tissue while burring
- Dental x-rays
- Potential removal of incisors if recurring
- Provide analgesia
- Nursing care, syringe feed, IVFT if anorexic
141
At what angle should nails be trimmed?
45 degrees
142
What is a biological vector?
- Also called intermediate host
- Some development of organism must take place
143
What is a mechanical vector?
- Transmit infection
- No development takes place
144
What is a paratenic host?
Host must be eaten to pass on infection
145
What are the 3 types of endoparasites?
- Nematodes (Round Worms)
- Cestodes (Tape Worms)
- Protozoa
146
What nematodes are there?
- Ascarids (Toxocara canis, cati, leonina)
- Hookworms
- Whipworms
- Heartworms
- Lungworms
147
What do nematodes look like?
Smooth, non-segmented appearence
148
What issue will kittens and puppies suffer from with heavy worm burdens?
- Poor growth
- Poor development
- Intestinal impactions
149
Ascarids have a 'free-living direct life cycle', what does this mean?
Live first part of life cycle in the environment
150
What are the clinical signs of toxocara cati?
- Distended abdomen
- Weakness
- Diarrhoea
- Vomiting
- Abdominal pain
- Dull coat
- Weight loss
- Worms in faeces or vomit
- Pneumonia if migrate to lungs
151
How is toxocara cati transmitted?
- From mother through milk
- Ingestion of eggs in environment
- Ingestion of paratenic host
152
Is toxocara cati host specific?
Yes - Only seen in cats
153
How can toxocara cati be controlled?
Through correct worming protocol
- Anthelmintic treatment from 3 weeks
- Treat every 2 weeks until 8 weeks old
- Treat monthly from 8 weeks to 6 months
- Treat every 1-3 months from 6 months old
154
What are the clinical signs of toxocara canis?
- Noisy breathing
- Cough
- Nasal discharge
- Vomiting
- Diarrhoea
- Stunted growth rate
- Distended abdomen
- Pale mucous membranes
155
Is toxocara canis host specific?
Yes - Only seen in dogs
156
Is toxocara canis zoonotic?
Yes
157
How is toxocara canis transmitted?
- In utero around 42nd day, transmitted via placenta
- Migrates through liver and lungs of puppy, then coughed up and swallowed
- Eggs in environment
- Through mothers milk
158
How can zoonotic transmission of toxocara canis be controlled?
- Use poo scoopers
- Thoroughly wash hands after handling puppies and before eating
- Avoid handling puppies not thoroughly wormed
- Don't allow dogs to lick hands and faces
- Consider monthly worming when dogs are around children and immunosuppressed
159
What is toxocara cati?
A nematode (Roundworm) that only affects cats
160
What is toxocara canis?
A nematode (Roundworm) that only affects dogs
161
What is the aim of endoparasitic control against toxocara canis?
- Prevent disease in puppies
- Prevent eggs being shed into the environment
- Prevent children being infected
162
How is toxocara canis controlled prenatally?
- Anthelmintic treatment for bitch before whelping
- Fenbendazole kills migrating larvae
- Treat from 40th day to 2 days post whelping
163
How is toxocara canis controlled post whelping?
- Treat puppies from 2 weeks old to 2 weeks post weaning
- Fenbendazole or other licensed anthelmintic for puppies
- Treat monthly from 8 weeks old until 6 months
- Treat every 3 months from 6 months old
164
What is toxocara leonina?
- Nematode (Roundworm) affects cats and dogs
- No prenatal infection
- Seen in adolescence/older animals
- No associated clinical signs
- Does not normally become a problem
165
What species do hookworms infect?
- Dogs
- Cats
- Urban foxes
166
What do hookworms look like?
- Short stouted with hooked heads
- Each type has a variation of head shape
167
What is the most common species of hook worm in the UK?
- Unicinaria stenocephala
- Occurs in small intestines of dogs
- Common in kennels; racing or hunting dogs
168
How are animals infected by hookworms?
- Puppies infected through bitches milk
- Animals commonly infected by larvae penetrating skin or being ingested
169
What can heavy burdens of hookworms cause?
- Anaemia
- Diarrhoea
- Weight loss
170
What is a whipworm?
- Trichuris Vulpis
- Nematode only infecting dogs
- Whip-like appearance
171
What is a trichuris vulpis?
Whip worm
172
What do whipworm eggs look like and how does this help them survive?
- Trichuris vulpis eggs oval shape
- Thick shell with polar like plugs
- Enables resistance to temperature extremes
- Infective 1st stage larvae in eggs can survive in ground for several years
- Causes reoccurring problems
173
What area of the dogs body is effected by whipworms?
- Trichuris vulpis burrow and lay eggs in large intestines
- Heavy burdens cause bloody, mucous diarrhoea
- Clinical disease is rare in UK
174
What is heart worm?
- Dirofilaria immitis
- Nematode (Roundworm) infecting dogs and cats
- More common in dogs than cats
- Not native to UK, found in warmer countries
- Consider treatment when travelling
175
How is heart worm transmitted?
- Intermediate host, mosquito
176
What is the 1st stage of Dirofilaria immitis (heartworm) larvae called?
Microfilariae
177
Where is dirofilaria immitis found?
In pulmonary vessels of the heart
178
What happens if an animal is infected with dirofilaria immitis?
- Single worm in cat has severe implications
- Light infection in dogs can be tolerated
- Large burden can lead to right sided heart failure
179
What is lung worm?
- Angiostronglus Vasorum
- Infects dogs and sometimes foxes
180
What is Angiostronglus Vasorum?
Lung worm affecting dogs and foxes
181
How are dogs and foxes infected by lungworm?
- Dogs/foxes ingest slug infected with larvae
- Eggs live in pulmonary artery, travel to alveoli
- Develops and hatches, larvae travels to tissues
- Cough larvae up then swallow and excrete in faeces
182
What are the clinical signs of lung worm in dogs and foxes?
- Dyspnoea
- Coughing
- Coagulopathies
183
How is lung worm diagnosed in dogs and foxes?
- Faecal sample
- Radiography
- Bronchial Alveolar Lavage (BAL) sample
- Blood testing
184
What species of lung worm infects cats?
Aelurostrongylus Abstrusus
185
What is Aelurostrongylus Abstrusus?
Lung worm infecting cats
186
How does lung worm infect cats?
- Ingest snail or slug (rare)
- Ingest paratenic host infected with larvae
187
What are the clinical signs for lungworm in cats?
- Adult lung worm live in lung tissue
- Small amount not normally a clinical problem
- Large burden can cause coughing
188
How is lung worm diagnosed in cats?
- Faecal sample containing larvae
- Does not produce eggs, only larvae
189
How are cats treated for round worms?
- Most common milbemycin - oral tablet
- Spot on treatment available
- To treat lung worm, milbemycin or combination of spot ons every month is required
190
What is a cestode?
Tapeworm
191
How many body parts does a cestode have and what are they?
3
- Scolex (head)
- Proglottids (segments)
- Maturing segments (bottom end)
192
What happens to a tapeworm in an intermediate host?
Development of their immature stage
193
What are the 3 most common cestodes?
- Taenia Spp
- Echinococcus Granulosus
- Dipylidium Caninum
194
What is Dipylidium Caninum?
- Known as dog tapeworm
- Can also be seen in cats
- Most common tapeworm in UK
195
What is the intermediate host for Dipylidium Caninum?
Flea and biting louse are intermediate hosts for dog tapeworm
196
How are dogs and cats infected with Dipylidium Caninum?
- Tapeworms develop into infective stage in adult flea
- Fleas are ingested by infested cats and dogs when grooming
197
How is Dipylidium Caninum diagnosed?
- 'Egg packet' segments visible around anus and in faeces
198
What are the clinical signs of Dipylidium Caninum?
- May not cause symptoms
- Heavy burdens cause weight loss and GI signs
199
What is Taenia Spp?
- Tapeworm infecting domesticated animals
- Intermediate hosts are rabbits, sheep, ruminants
200
How are dogs infected with Taenia Spp?
Eating raw meat, uncooked or offal containing larval cysts
201
How are cats infected with Taenia Spp?
- Eating prey with intermediate level tapeworms
- E.g. rabbits
202
What is the difference between Dipylidium Caninum and Taenia Spp?
- Same life cycle
- Different intermediate hosts
DC = fleas TS = mammals
203
How is Taenia Spp diagnosed?
- Identify segments in faeces
- Rarely, eggs in faeces seen under microscope
204
What is Echinococcus Granulosus?
- Very rare tapeworm
- 2 areas of uk dogs have access to feed on sheep carcasses in hills of countryside
- Zoonotic - causes serioud disease
205
Is Echinococcus Granulosus zoonotic?
- Yes
- Causes hyatid disease
- Hyatid cysts form in liver and lungs
- Cause serious disease
206
What are proglottids?
Segments of tape worms
207
How many proglottids do Echinococcus Granulosus have?
Only 3
- Immature
- Mature
- Gravid
208
How is Echinococcus Granulosus diagnosed?
- Segments (prolottids) unlikely seen in faeces
- Visually see adult worms in intestines
- Thousands can be found
- Can remain infected for 2 years without treatment
209
What are the intermediate hosts for Echinococcus Granulosus?
Ruminants, including horses
- Hyatid cysts found in liver, lungs and other organs
210
How are cestodes treated?
- Same protocols as roundworms for tapeworms
- Broad spectrum or specific anthelmintics
- Some spot ons DO NOT cover tapeworms
- Any animal with fleas or lice should be treated
- Hunting cats should be treated
211
What worms does the anthelmintic Pyrantel cover?
Nematodes (Roundworms)
212
What worms does the anthelmintic Praziquantel cover?
Cestodes (Tapeworms)
213
What worms does the anthelmintic Milbemycin cover?
- Nematodes (Roundworms)
- Whipworms
- Lungworms
214
What worms does the anthelmintic Fenbendazole cover?
- Nematodes (Roundworms)
- Whipworms
- Hookworms
- Taenia Spp Cestodes (Tapeworms)
- Some Lungworms
215
What are protozoa?
Small unicellular organisms
216
What are the 4 types of protozoa?
- Coccidia
- Hammondia
- Giardia
- Trichomonas
217
What are the 3 types of Coccidia protozoa?
- Eimeria Spp
- Crytosporidium parvum
- Toxoplasma Gondii
218
What is coccidia?
- Protozoal parasite
- Causes marked D+ in young animals
219
What is Eimeria Spp?
- Type of coccidia causing coccidiosis
- Infects rabbits, live stock, horses, birds
220
What are the clinical signs of Eimeria Spp in rabbits?
Emaciation from D+
221
How is Eimeria Spp diagnosed and controlled?
- Identification of oocysts in faeces
- High cleaning and welfare standards
- Ensure no D+ or faeces in rabbit feeding area
222
What is Cryptosporidium Parvum?
- Small protozoa parasite found in epithelium of SI
- Infects puppies and kittens that ingest sporulated oocysts
- Causes D+
223
Is Cryptosporidium Parvum zoonotc?
- Yes
- Causes severe, painful D+
224
How is Cryptosporidium Parvum diagnosed?
identification of oocysts in faeces
225
How is Cryptosporidium Parvum controlled?
- No effective treatment
- Barrier nursing
- Extreme cleanliness
226
What is Toxoplasma Gondii?
- Internal coccidia parasite
- Definitive (final) host is the cat
227
Is Toxoplasma Gondii Zoonotic?
- Yes
- Dangerous in pregnant and immunosuppressed
- Can cause spontaneous abortion, congenital defects
- Flu symptoms in adults
228
How does Toxoplasma Gondii effect sheep?
- Pregnant ewes can have spontaneous abortions
- Vaccination available for sheep
229
How is Toxoplasma Gondii controlled?
- Wear gloves for gardening
- Pregnant not to empty litter trays
- Pregnant should not lamb ewes
- Ensure meat is thoroughly cooked
230
How is Toxoplasma Gondii diagnosed?
- Identification of oocysts in faeces
- Serological diagnoses via antibodies
231
What happens to cat infected with Toxoplasma Gondii?
- Usually show no clinical signs
- Excrete oocysts for 10 days
- Will become immune and stop producing oocysts
232
What is Hammondia?
- Protozoa parasite
- Rodents are intermediate host
- Cats are definitive hosts
- Reproduction in intestines, oocysts in faeces
- No clinical signs, not zoonotic
233
What is Giardia Spp?
- Flagellate protozoa in SI of humans and domestic animals
- Some species are zoonotic, some host specific
- Puppies are most at risk of becoming infected
234
What are the clinical signs of Giardia Spp?
- Can be asymptomatic
- Chronic or transient D+
235
How is Giardia Spp diagnosed?
- Cysts in faecal samples
- 3 day pooled sample for lab analysis
- Cysts passed intermittently in small numbers
236
How is Giardia Spp treated?
- Fenbendazole anthelmintic or Metronidozole
- Cleaning and hygiene very important
- Eliminate cysts to prevent further outbreak
237
What is Tritrichomonas Foetus?
- Unicellular flagellate protozoa
- Causes chronic D+ in cats
- Difficult to treat, may need off-license drugs
- Can occur as co-infection with other pathogens
- Diagnosed via visual of parasite on smear
238
What is Encephalitozoon Cuniculi?
- E. Cuniculi
- Microspordian parasite seen in rabbits
239
Is Encephalitozoon Cuniculi zoonotic?
Yes
240
How do rabbits become infected with Encephalitozoon Cuniculi?
- Inhaling or ingesting spores
- From environment or infected rabbit urine
241
What are the clinical signs of Encephalitozoon Cuniculi in rabbits?
- Ataxia
- Paralysis
- Urinary incontinence
- Seizures
- Weight loss
- Polydipsia/polyuria
- Can cause renal and CNS damage
242
How is Encephalitozoon Cuniculi diagnosed and treated in rabbits?
- Can lie dormant
- Clinical signs often only apparent after stress
- Treated by 28 day course of Fenbendazole
- Possibility of recurrence
243
What is Leishmania Spp?
- Flagellate protozoa
- More prevalent due to animal travel
- Transmitted through sand flies
- Seen in warmer Mediterranean countries
- Normally seen in dogs
- Cats and humans can be infected
244
Is Leishmania Spp zoonotic?
Yes
245
What are clinical signs of Leishmania Spp?
- Causes mucocutaneous and visceral disease in dogs, humans and other mammals
- Localised alopecia and skin lesions
- Weight loss
- Renal problems
246
What is Babesia Spp?
- Parasites that infect RBC of dogs
- Causes profound anaemia
- Transmitted via ticks
- More common in central and south europe
- Some cases reported in UK
247
What are the clinical signs of Babesia Spp?
- Causes acute disease
- Profound anaemia
- Pyrexia
- Jaundice
- Without rapid treatment, causes death
248
What are Prions?
- Distorted version of normal proteins
- Found in animal and human brains
- Potentially in other living tissue
- Prions cause fatal neurological diseases
- Causes mad cow disease (Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy), Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) and Scrapie disease
249
What is an ectoparasite?
- Lives on outside of host animal
250
What is an insect?
- 3 pairs of legs
- 3 body sections
- Head, thorax, abdomen
251
What is an arachnid?
- 4 pairs of legs
- 2 body sections
- Cephalothorax, abdomen
- Mites and ticks are arachnids
252
What does the term macroscopic mean?
Visible to naked eye
253
What deos the term microscopic mean?
Only visable under a microscope
254
Whats are the 4 most common types of mites?
- Sarcoptic Scabiei
- Demodex
- Otodectes Cynotis
- Cheyletiella
255
What are Sarcoptes Scabiei?
- Mites - Arachnid
- Burrowing mite
- Causes Sarcoptic Mange
- Small tunnels in skin, lays eggs in pockets
256
What hosts do Sarcoptes Scabiei infect?
- Dogs
- Foxes
- Other canids
- Not zoonotic but can irritate skin
257
How are Sarcoptes Scabiei transmitted?
- Close contact with infected animals
- Eggs/mites in environment
258
How are Sarcoptes Scabiei diagnosed and what size are they?
- Skin scrapes
- Blood test
- Microscopic
259
What are Demodex?
- Mite - Arachnid
- Lives in hair follicles and sebaceous glands
- Cigar shaped body
- Does not always cause problem to host
260
What hosts does Demodex infect?
- Dogs
- Hamsters
261
How is Demodex diagnosed?
- Skin scrapes
- Hair plucks
262
How does Demodex effect its host?
- On younger dogs - genetic predisposition
- On older dogs - immunosuppressed
- Increase in number cause non-puritic dematitis
- Localised - small regions on face
- Generalised - Normally on feet
263
What are Otodectes Cynotis?
- Oval shaped, white ear mite - arachnid
- Surface feeding mite
- Causes mange in ears and dark waxy discharge
264
How are Otodectes Cynotis diagnosed and what size are they?
- Examination
- Ear swab under microscope
- Macroscopic
265
What are Cheyletiella?
- Walking dandruff
- Fur mite - arachnid
266
What hosts do Cheyletiella infect?
- Dogs
- Cats
- Rabbits - very common during moulting or if not grooming
- Zoonotic - Causes mild dermatitis
267
How are Cheyletiella diagnosed and what size are they?
- Coat brushing
- Sellotape strips
- Macroscopic
268
What are fleas?
- Insect
- Bite host for blood meal
- Macroscopic
- Not zoonotic but will bite
- Diagnosed by combing fleas or faeces on coat
269
What are the 3 most common types of fleas?
- Ctenocephalides Canis - Dogs
- Ctenochephalides Felis - Cats
- Spillopsylla Caniculi - Rabbits
270
What is Flea Allergy Dermatitis (FAD)?
- Animal becomes sensitised to flea allergens
- exaggerated immunological response
- severe dermatitis can occur from few bites
271
What are Ctenocephalides Canis?
- Dog flea - most common in kennels
- Transmits Dipylidium Caninum (worms)
272
What are Ctenocephalides Felis?
- Cat flea - also on dogs
- Transmits Feline Infectious Anaemia
273
What are Spillopsylla Caniculi?
- Rabbit flea - + cats hunting rabbits
- Only attaches to face
- Transmits Myxomatosis
274
What are lice?
- Insects
- Heavy infestations cause pediculosis
- Infects dogs, cats, rabbits, rodents, birds
275
What are the 2 families of lice?
- Chewing/biting lice
- Sucking lice
276
What are the 3 most common lice?
- Trichodectes Canis - Dog biting lice
- Felicola Subrostratus - Cat biting lice
- Linognathus Setosus - Sucking lice
277
What are Trichodectes Canis?
- Dog biting lice
- Infects dogs and wild canids
- Entire life cycle on host
- Intermediate host = Dipylidium Caninum
278
How are Trichodectes Canis diagnosed and transmitted?
- Macroscopic
- Brush, skin scrape, visible on skin
- Close contact with infected
- Eggs on fomites
- Not zoonotic
279
What are Felicola Subrostatus?
- Cat biting lice
- Host specific to cats
280
How are Felicola Subrostratus diagnosed and transmitted?
- Macroscopic
- Brush, skin scrape, visible
- Close contact with infected
- Eggs on fomites
- Not zoonotic
281
What are Linognathus Setosus?
- Sucking lice
- Cause anaemia in large quantities
282
How are Linognathus Setosus diagnosed and transmitted?
- Macroscopic
- Brush, skin scrape, visible on skin
- Close contact with infected
- Eggs on fomites
- Not zoonotic
283
What is Myiasis?
- Fly strike
- Infestation of dipteran fly larvae in living tissue
- Most common green bottles in summer but can be other species
- Most commonly seen in rabbits
- Can be seen in other domestic animals
- Due to poor hygiene
- Can be fatal if not treated
284
What are microchips?
- Have unique ID numbers linked to database
- Implanted between scapulae
285
When should dogs be microchipped?
- Microchipping of Dogs Regulations 2015
- Required for all dogs over 8 weeks
- Breeders legally obliged to chip and register
286
Who can legally implant microchips?
- Veterinary Surgeon
- RVN/SVN under direction of VS
- Completed secretary of state training course
287
What are tattoos?
- Not routinely used for ID in UK
- May be seen on imported pets
- Racing greyhounds, Lab animals
288
Where can birds be microchipped?
In pectoral muscle
289
Where can chelonia be microchipped?
Left hind leg
290
Where can chelonia be microchipped?
Left hind leg
291
How can birds be identified other than microchips?
- Leg rings
- Temporary coloured rings for races
- Owner details stamped on wings
292
How can rabbits be identified other than microchips?
- Pedigree rabbits being shown have ID rings on their legs
- Required by British Rabbit Council
293
What dogs need ID tags and what information is required?
- Control of Dogs Order 1992
- All dogs in a public place
- Owners name, address, postcode
- Phone number advisable
294
How can animals be identified in the hospital?
- Clipboard on kennels
- Temporary paper/plastic hospital tags/collars
295
How can DNA testing be used for identification?
- Prove parentage or breeding
- Clarify sex of birds and exotic species
- Check for inherited diseases
- Cat blood type to check compatibility for breeding
296
What are the Welfare of Animals (Transport) Order 2006?
- Fit for journey
- Not transported in way that will cause harm
- Personnel must be trained and competent
- Must not be at 90% gestation
- Must not have given birth within last week
- Vehicle allows disinfection, safe loading, barriers, bedding and ventilation
- If become ill or injured, vet treatment must be provided
297
When are animal transport certificates and contingency plans in case of problems required?
Journeys over 8 hours
298
Who needs a transporter authorisation certificate issued by APHA?
Anyone commercially transporting animals over 40 miles
299
What are the signs of a normal dog?
- Happy and alert
- Tail at normal, relaxed position
- Moves freely with head held high
- Jaw relaxed, tongue may loll in mouth
- Tail wagging when greeting
300
What are the signs of a fearful or anxious dog?
- Avoiding eye contact
- Unwilling to eat
- Hackles may be raised
- Cowering, panting, licking lips, yawning
- Tail tucked under body
- May growl or snap if pushed
- May kennel guard
301
What are the signs of a confident aggressive dog?
- Advances confidently
- Tail and ears held high
- Looks straight ahead
- Bared teeth, snapping, ready to bite
302
What are the signs of a depressed dog?
- Withdrawn, unwilling to interact
- Off food, sleeping a lot
- May become snappy
- Can be seen when separated from owner/other pets
303
What are the signs of a dog in pain?
- Panting
- Unwilling to move/abnormal gait
- Vocalising
- Withdrawn/unwilling to interact
- Not eating, restless
- Abnormal posture, stretching, praying position
- Bed soiling, unwilling to eliminate
- Snapping
304
What are the signs of a friendly cat?
- Approach without hesitation
- Tail and head held high
- Pupils open, not dilated
- Whiskers held laterally
- Often purr/greeting sound
- May push head against person
305
What are the signs of a fearful or anxious cat?
- Pupils enlarged
- Whiskers bristling
- Ears flat
- Mouth open, may hiss, spit
- Back arched, body turned sideways
- Tail, fur along back raised
- Often front paw lifted, ready to strike
306
What are the signs of an aggressive cat?
- Pupils, closed to slit
- Whiskers bristling forwards
- Mouth wide open, lips curled back
- Growling, hissing, spitting
- Crouches, ready to strike
- Fur smooth
- Tail low and close, bristling and swishing
307
What are the signs of a depressed or stressed cat?
- Off food
- Outburst of aggression
- Hiding away
- Inappropriate elimination
- Excessive grooming
308
What are the signs of cat in pain?
- Hunched, reduced mobilising
- Off food
- Aggression
- Lack of grooming
- Ears rotated and flat, frowning
- Hiding, unwilling to interact
- Vocalisation and hissing
309
How should approaching and restraining dogs be planned ?
- Check notes and ask owner about behaviour
- Allow time to explore room while talking to owner
- Observe body language
- Assess relationship with owner, stay or leave?
- Aware of trigger stacking
- Less is more + distraction techniques
310
How should dogs be approached?
- Allow dog to approach you
- Approachable body language
- Body to side, don't stare
- Confident welcoming tones
- Use slip leads, don't grab collar
311
How should dogs be caught and moved?
- Securely restrained before moving
- Ensure collar/lead secure/in good condition
- Double slip lead if in doubt
- Ask owners to leave first, dog will follow you
- Avoid flexi leads, can break, fail or wrap around
- Attach long lead to kennel guarders
312
What should be considered before handling small animals?
- Respiratory distress?
- Used to handling?
- Metabolic bone disease? Easily fracture
- Visual examination enough?
313
What are the different types of muzzles available?
- Basket, plastic or metal
- Fabric open ended
- Tape muzzles (bandage)
- Brachychephalic muzzles
314
How should dogs be lifted and carried?
- Over 20kgs should be lifted by 2
- Dogs should feel safe and secure
- Stretchers/trolleys for injured/anaesthetised
315
How should large dogs be carried?
- One handler hold under chest and head
- Other hold under abdomen and hind legs
316
How should small and medium dogs be carried?
- Hind legs held against body by elbow/arm
- Hand supporting under chest
- Other arm to support chest and head
317
What should be considered before stressful restraint methods?
- Pain related? Will analgesia help?
- Essential? If yes, sedation?
- Bad experience = future problems
- Long term problems? Referral to behaviourist?
318
What restraint equipment is there for dogs, other than muzzles?
- Rolled up towels/blankets
- Dog catchers
319
How should cats be approached?
- Calm, quiet, confident
- Spray pheromones
- Avoid eye contact, offer hand, fuss under chin
- Never pull cat out of carrier
- Can remove top of carrier to examine cat
- Less is more
320
321
How should cats be transported?
- Always in suitable cat box
- Sturdy and secure, cardboard can be shredded my claws or disintegrate from urine
322
What equipment can be used for restraining cats?
- Towels
- Cat bags
- Cat muzzles
- Gauntlets
- Crush cage
- Cat catchers
323
Why do rabbits and rodents easily become stressed in a veterinary environment?
They are prey species
324
What is the major concern when handling rabbits?
They can injure their spine or limbs when struggling
325
How should aggressive rabbits be held?
- Hold scruff with one hand
- Other hand under rump
- Hold close to body
326
How should rabbits be handled?
- One hand under thorax
- Thumb and fingers holding forelimbs
- Other hand supporting back
- Towels and restraint bags can be used
- Ensure rabbit does not overheat
327
What should not be done when holding rabbits?
Should not be placed on their back
328
How should a gerbil be held?
- Never hold by tail
- Use cupped hands
- Grasp across shoulders, thumb under chin
- Hold scruff
329
How should a chinchilla be held?
- One hand around pectoral girdle
- Other supporting hind legs
- Shed fur and spray urine when stressed
330
How should a rat be held?
- Hold around pectoral girdle
- Other hand under hind limbs
331
How should a hamster be held?
- Hold around pectoral girdle
- Scruffing can cause prolapsed eyeball
- Can use clear box if aggressive
332
How should a mouse be held?
- Grasp tail with one hand
- Hold scruff with other hand
333
How should a guinea pig be held?
- One hand around shoulders
- Other hand support rump
334
What is hypothyroidism?
- Under secretion of Thyroxine
- Primary, Secondary, Congenital, Iatrogenic
335
What is primary hypothyroidism?
- Results from destruction of thyroid gland
- Lymphatic thyroiditis - immune-mediated
- Idopathic atrophy
336
What is secondary hypothyroidism?
- Results from destruction of pituitary gland
- Usually caused by growing tumors
337
What is congenital hypothyroidism?
- Results from abnormal organ development
- Or defective hormone synthesis/secretion
338
Can cats get hypothyroidism?
- Yes but rare
- Most common iatrogenic hypothyroidism
- Results from treatment for hyperthyroidism
- Can occur after thyroidectomy
339
How does hypothyroidism effect the body?
- Slows cellular metabolism
- Alopecia and secondary pyoderma
- Entire dogs and bitches - affect fertility
- Some occasions associated with neurological
- Severe cases can lead to coma
340
What are the clinical symptoms of hypothyroidism?
- Lethargy
- Obesity
- Bradycardia
- Hypothermia
- Alopecia
- Skin infections
- Dull and dry coat
- Hyperpigmentation
- Seborrhoea
341
How does hypothyroidism effect young dogs?
Stunted growth
342
What dog breeds have a potential predisposition to hypothyroidism?
- Golden Retriever
- Doberman Pinscher
- Irish Setter
- Mini Schnauzer
- Dachshund
- Cocker Spaniel
- Airedale Terrier
343
How is Hypothyroidism treated?
- Supplement of Thyroxine (Levothroxine)
- Measuring T4 levels
- Observing clinical signs
344
What are the special nursing considerations for Hypothyroidism patients?
- May have decreased appetite
- Monitor BSI for obesity
- May have coat problems and skin infections
- Good hygiene, regular cleaning and grooming
- May feel sluggish and not want to exercise
- Encourage gentle exercise, monitor mobility tolerance
345
What is hyperthyroidism?
- Thyroid gland produces excess Thyroxine
- Majority of cases caused by harmless swellings
- 1-3% of cases are cancerous
- Causes high metabolic rate, high blood pressure and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
- Common in older cats, rare in dogs
- Symptoms appear slowly but can be fatal if not treated
346
What are the symptoms of Hyperthyroidism?
- Weight loss
- Polyphagia
- D+/V+
- Tachycardia
- Dull coat
- Lethargy
- PU/PD
- Hyperactivity/demanding
- Alopecia
347
How is Hyperthyroidism treated?
- Medication to slow production of Thyroxine
- Life long, regular blood tests to monitor
- Surgery to remove affected thyroid gland
- Low iodine diet
- Radioactive iodine treatment
348
What nursing considerations are there for Hyperthyroidism patients?
- Tachycardia, heart failure
- Monitor resp and HR
- Increased appetite, give normal/low iodine diet
- Monitor weight
- Poor coat; good hygiene, clean and groom
349
What is cushings disease?
- Hyperadrenocorticism
- Over production of cortisol steroid hormone ACTH
350
What causes Cushings disease?
- Pituitary gland tumor (85-90% of cases)
- Adrenal gland tumor
- If benign and removed will cure disease
- Iatrogenic - excessive use of steroid meds
351
What are the symptoms of cushings disease?
- 5 P's
- Polyphagia
- PU/PD
- Panting
- 'Pot-bellied'
- Lethargy
352
Which breeds are predisposed to Cushings disease?
- Poodles, especially mini
- Dachshunds
- Boxers
- Boston terriers
- Yorkshire terriers
- Staffordshire terriers
- More common in dogs than cats
353
Precocial
Young born already fully developed
Not reliant on mother
354
Altricial
Young that are reliant on mother
355
Heamatoptysis
Coughing up blood
356
Sinus arythmia
Heart rate increases when patient breaths
Normal in healthy animals
357
Cyanosis
Blue mucous membranes
358
Ictaric
Yellow
359
Dyspnoea
Difficulty breathing
360
Poikilothermic
- Core body temperature reliant on environment
- Cold blooded species
- Newborn mammal neonates
361
Decubritis ulcers
Pressure sores
362
Ataxia
Neurological unstableness
363
Biological value
Quality of protein
364
Stridor
High pitched wheezing sound
Caused by disrupted airflow
365
Stertor
Low pitched noise resulting from pharyngeal vibrations
Snoring
366
Crepuscula
Active at twilight
367
Steatorrhoea
Fat in faeces
368
Acities
Fluid in abdomen
369
Post ictal
Post seizure
370
Aniscoria
Unequal pupil sizes
371
Cyanotic
Blue mucous membranes caused by hypoxia
372
Induced ovulator
Ovulates only after mating
Cats, rabbits, ferrets
373
What is meant by medical nursing?
Nursing according to disease/surgery/diagnosis
374
What is meant by holistic nursing?
Addressing all the patients needs
375
What basic visual observations should be checked when nursing?
- Reflexes-response to noise, touch
- Coat condition-clean, groomed, hair loss?
- Patients head-tilt, discharge, eyes, ears, pupils
- Thorax-RR, effort, noise, movements
- Abdomen-shape, hunched, tense
- Genitalia-symmetrical testes, discharge?
- Hind Limbs-muscle mass, gait, use
- U+/F+-any passed? normal?
- Appetite-eating? inappetent?
376
What are patients perameters affected by?
- Metabolic rate
- Values higher in smaller and younger
- Values vary between species
377
What is the normal temperature range for dogs?
38.3 - 39.2
378
What is the normal temperature range for cats?
38.2 - 38.6
379
What is the normal temperature range for rabbitS?
38.5 - 40
380
Diphasic
Fluctuating temperature
381
When would temperature abnormalities be seen?
- Anaesthetics
- Neonates
- Disease
- Unsuitable environment
- Heat stroke
382
How can patients control their temperature?
- Panting
- Sweating
- Change of posture
- Vasodilation/vasoconstriction
- Hair/erector pili muscles
- Shivering
- Exercise, rest
383
What is the normal pulse range for dogs?
70 - 140
384
What is the normal pulse range for cats?
100 - 200
385
Whats is the normal pulse range for rabbits?
130 - 325
386
What are the common sites for pulse measurement?
Where artery crosses a bone
- Femoral artery
- Carpal artery
- Coccygeal artery
- Sublingual artery
- Jugular
- Brachial
387
Arrhythmia
Abnormal heart rate
388
Weak thread pulse
Seen in shock cases and diminished cardiac output
389
Pulse deficit
- More heart beats recorded than femoral pulse
- Indicative of severe arrhythmia
390
Sinus arrhythmia
- Pulse quickens when breathing in
- Pulse slows when breathing out
- Normal in healthy animals
391
Auscultation
Listening to heart, lungs, other organs with a stethoscope
392
Where should a stethoscope be placed to hear a heart beat?
- Lower left side of chest
- Caudal and slightly dorsal to elbow
- Between 3rd and 6th rib
393
Systole
- Contraction of the heart to expel blood
- Lub sound
394
Diastole
- Chambers relax and fill with blood
- Dub sound
395
What may abnormal heart sounds indicate?
- Murmurs
- Gallop rhythms
396
What might increase respiration rate?
- Increased temperature
- Pain
- Excitement
397
What might decrease respiration rate?
- Older animals
- Larger animals
- General anaesthetic
398
What is the normal range for respiration rate in dogs?
10 - 30
399
What is the normal range for respiration rate in cats?
20 - 30
400
What is the normal range for respiration rate in rabbits?
30 - 60
401
What may crackles indicate when listening to lung sounds?
- Pulmonary oedema
- Haemorrhage
402
What may wheezes indicate when listening to lung sounds?
- Partial blockage
- Secretions into airway
403
What information can be gained from palpating the abdomen?
- Palpate structures
- Assess abdominal pain
- Auscultation for gut sounds
404
What structures can be palpated in the abdomen?
- Bladder
- Kidneys
- Spleen
- Small + large intestines
- Enlarged prostate
- Enlarged uterus
- Liver
405
What can make abdominal palpating difficult?
- Temperament
- Tense / Painful
- Overweight
- Body shape; deep chested
406
How can mucous membranes indicate a patient is dehydrated?
- CRT longer than 2 seconds
- Dry mucous membranes
407
What is a fast capillary refill time associated with?
Sepsis
408
Pink MMs
Normal
409
Brick red MMs
- Toxic
- Vasodilation
410
White/pale MMs
- Anaemia
- Shock
411
Blue/cyanotic MMs
Hypoxic - Not enough oxygen
412
Yellow/icteric MMs
Jaundice
413
Black MMs
Normal pigmentation
414
What causes enlarged lymph nodes?
- Infection
- Neoplasia
415
Neoplasia
Uncontrolled growth of cells (Tumor)
416
What lymph nodes can be palpated?
- Submandibular
- Prescapular
- Popliteal
- Auxillary and inguinal only when enlarged
- Rabbits have smaller lymph nodes, not always palpable
417
What factors can make weight an inaccurate way to assess body condition?
- Fluid accumulation
- Muscle mass
- Tumors
418
What does body condition scoring entail?
- Visual assessment and palpation
- 5 and 9 point systems in use
- Breed variations must be accounted for
419
What can cause loss of appetite?
- Mouth ulcers/dental disease
- Nasal congestion
- Infectious disease
- Metabolic disease
- Pyrexia
- Dislike food
- Stress
420
What can cause excess in appetite?
- Parasites
- Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency
- Starvation
- Hypoglycaemia
- Hyperthyroidism
421
Coprophagia
- Eating faeces
- Behavioural
- Insufficient diet
- Rabbits do this naturally
422
Projectile vomiting
From stomach or small intestine
423
Stercoraceous vomit
Contains faecal material
424
Haematemisis
Vomit containing blood
425
Bilious
Vomit containing bile
426
Cyclic
Recurring
427
Retching
- Attempting to vomit
- Different to coughing
428
Can rabbits vomit?
No
429
What can cause vomiting?
- Foreign body
- Infection
- Toxins
- Drug reactions
- Renal disease/ UT obstruction
- Pyometra
- Pancreatitis
- Diabetic ketoacidosis
430
What is regugitation?
- Passive process
- Comes back before entering stomach
- Aspiration pneumonia can occur
- Malnutrition if ongoing
431
Megaoesophagus
- Dilated oesophagus
- No muscle tone
- Gravity feeding required
432
Anorexia
No appetite
433
Inappetant
Reduced appetite
434
Tenesmus
Straining to defecate
435
Dyschezia
Pain when defecating
436
Steatorrhoea
Fat in faeces
437
Melaena
- Black tarry faeces
- Bleeding in upper GI tract
438
What can cause straining?
- Dietary
- Foreign body
- Furballs
- Dehydration
- Enlarged prostate gland
- Diarrhoea
- Colitis
439
What should be checked when patients are defecating?
- Volume
- Frequency
- Colour
- Smell
- Texture
- Parasites
440
What can cause acute diarrhoea and how should it be treated?
- Dietary change
- Scavenging
- Infectious cause (Parvo, giardia)
- Remain hydrated, IVFT if severe
- Bland, easy to digest food in small portions
441
How should chronic diarrhoea be treated?
- Investigate cause
- May need hypoallergenic food
- Steroids if inflammatory condition
- Enzyme supplements if exocrine pancreatic insufficiency
442
What are the clinical signs of small intestinal diarrhoea?
- Vomiting common
- Increased appetite common
- Increased faecal volume
- Watery faeces
- Normal frequency with no urgency
- No mucus
- Malaena (Black stools) may be seen
443
What are the clinical signs of large intestinal diarrhoea?
- Vomiting unusual
- Normal appetite and faecal volume
- Urgency
- Increased frequency
- Straining and mucus common
444
What is another word for gut stasis?
Ileus
445
Dysuria
Difficulty urinating
446
Anuria
No urination
447
Urinary tenesmus
Straining
448
Haematuria
Blood in urine
449
Oliguria
Reduced urine production
450
What is the normal urine output for dogs and cats?
1 - 2ml / kg/ hour
24 - 48ml / kg / day
451
What is the daily fluid requirement for dogs and cats?
40 - 60ml / kg / day
452
What is the daily fluid requirement for rabbits?
50 - 150ml / kg / day
453
What should be assessed when patients urinate?
- Colour
- Quantity
- Turbidity
- Smell
- Test?
454
What can problems when patients urinate indicate?
- Calculi (stones)
- Enlarged prostate
- FLUTD (Feline lower urine tract disease)
- Renal disease
- Diabetes mellitus
- Diabetes insipidus
- Infection
- Tumors
455
What are some signs of abnormalities with the ears?
- Excessive aural discharge
- Pruritus (Itchy)
- Alopecia
- Dry, scaly skin
- Odours
456
What can cause ear problems?
- Hormonal problems
- Poor nutrition
- Parasites
- Infections
- Allergic reactions
457
What is the term for surface infections?
Dematitis
458
What are the terms to describe superficial infections?
- Impetigo (Puppies)
- Pyoderma
- Folliculitis (Hair follicles)
459
What are the terms used to describe deep skin infections?
- Pyoderma
- Pododermatitis (Feet)
- Furunculosis (Hair follicles)
460
Blepharospasm
Constant blinking
461
Lacrimation
Tear production
462
Miotic
Constricted pupils
463
Aniscoria
Uneven pupil size
464
What factors may cause eye problems?
- Infections
- Foreign body
- Injury/ulceration
- Head injury
- Inherited conditions
465
What should be assessed when looking at patients eyes?
- Discharge?
- Eyes fully open?
- Vision?
- Pupillary light reflex
- Pupil sizes, do they match?
466
What should be assessed when looking at patients nose?
- Discharge?
- Sneezing?
- Irritation?
467
What may cause nose problems?
- Infections
- Trauma
- Neoplasia
- Foreign body
468
What discharge is present during pro oestrus?
Blood present
469
What colour discharge is present during oestrus?
Straw coloured discharge
470
What is the colour of discharge during imminent parturition?
Dark green discharge
471
What is metritis and what colour is the discharge?
- Inflammation of the uterus
- Black-dark brown discharge
472
What colour discharge occurs during abortion?
Foul black discharge
473
What is pyometra and what colour is the discharge?
- Infection of the uterus
- Purulent discharge
474
What might cause coughing?
- Infection
- Lung disease
- Heart disease
- Asthma
- Allergy
- Tracheal collapse
475
Why might an animal be restless?
- Pain
- Boredom
- Need to U+/D+
- Nausea
476
What can be done when an animal is restless?
- Assess pain
- Provide comfort and company
- medicate
- Give opportunities to U+/D+
477
What symptoms can indicate pain?
- Restlessness
- Vocalisation
- Aggression
- Withdrawn
- Abnormal posture
- Chewing affected area
- Pyrexia
- Increased HR/RR
- Lameness
- Stiff gait
- Species dependent
478
How can stress be reduced when introducing new animals?
- Plenty of resources
- Scent mixing first, swap bedding/toys
- Allow time, don't rush
- Pheromones, calming sprays
- Hides, different levels, cat flaps for time out
- Positive reinforcement for good behaviour
479
When should introducing new pets be avoided?
- One is pregnant or nursing; more protective
- One is recovering from illness or surgery
- Pain my make them less tolerant
- Avoid busy times of year
480
What can happen to rabbits if they lose their companion?
Stress causes anorexia
481
What are the energy producing nutrients?
- Fats
- Carbohydrates
- Proteins
482
What is the most important nutrient?
Water
483
What are micronutrients?
- Vitamins and minerals
- Only needed in small amounts
484
What are the non energy producing nutrients?
- Water
- Vitamins
- Minerals
485
What percentage of an animals body weight is water?
60%
486
What percentage of water deficiency becomes fatal?
15 - 20%
487
What are the 3 types of carbohydrates?
- Monosaccharides
- Disaccharides
- Polysaccharides
488
What are monosaccharides?
- Simple sugars
- Glucose
- Fructose
489
What are disaccharides?
- 2 simple sugars joined together
- Require enzymes to digest
- Sucrose
- Lactose
490
What are polysaccharides?
- Many simple sugars joined together
- Complex carbohydrates
- Soluble; Starch, glycogen
- Insoluble; Fibre
- Soluble require enzymes to digest
- Insoluble require bacterial fermentation
491
Carbohydrate facts
- Sugars good for short bursts of energy
- Cats require less than dogs
- Excess in cats leads to GI upset
- Fibre essential for correct gut transit times, increased faecal bulk and colon health
- Increased fibre produces satiety
- Increased fibre helps control glucose fluctuations in diabetic patients
- High fibre is used in some chronic GI issues such as colitis
492
What are proteins made of?
Chains of amino acids
493
What is the difference between essential and non-essential amino acids?
- Non-essential can be made by the body
- Essential are required in the diet
494
How many essential amino acids do dogs need?
10
495
How many essential amino acids do cats need?
11 - also need taurine
496
What can taurine deficiency lead to in cats?
Eye and heart problems
497
What is meant by the term biological value?
- Quality of protein
- Higher BV = more essential amino acids to be utilised by the body and less urea production
498
What is protein waste converted into?
- Ammonia is converted to urea in the liver
- Excreted by the kidneys
499
Protein facts
- Renal patients require reduced but high biological value proteins
- Vital for tissue growth and repair
- Insufficiency leads to breakdown of muscle
- Makes hormones and enzymes
- Helps with transporting oxygen
- Protects against infections
500
What is gross energy (GE)?
Maximum amount of energy that could come from food
501
What is digestible energy (DE)?
- Energy available once food has been absorbed
- Calculated as gross energy (GE) minus faeces
502
What is metabolisable energy (ME)?
- Energy that can be used by cells
- Calculated as DE minus urinary losses
503
How are carbohydrates stored in the body?
As glycogen
504
How are carbohydrates broken down into monosaccharides in the body?
- Mechanical breakdown through chewing
- Enzymes in stomach and small intestines
- Microbial breakdown by fermentation in the colon
505
What are sources of simple sugars?
Fruits, honey
506
What are sources of lactose?
Milk, dairy products
507
What are sources of starches?
- Corn
- Wheat
- Rice
- Barley
- Oats
- Potatoes
508
What are the sources of slowly fermentable fibre, cellulose?
Wheat bran
509
What are the sources of moderately fermentable fibre?
- Rice bran
- Pea fibre
- Wheat bran
510
What are the sources of rapidly fermentable fibre?
- Apples
- Citrus pulp
- Guar gum
511
Where do cats get most of their dietary energy from?
Protein
512
How are amino acids linked together?
With peptide bonds
513
What is a dipeptide?
2 amino acids joined together
514
What is a tripeptide?
3 amino acids joined together
515
What is a polypeptide?
4 or more amino acids joined together
516
What are the 10 essential amino acids for dogs?
- Arginine
- Histidine
- Isoleucine
- Leucine
- Lysine
- Methionine
- Phenylanine
- Threonine
- Trytophan
- Valine
517
How does biological value of proteins affect the kidneys?
Less strain on the kidneys as less urea passing through
518
How much energy does fat provide in relation to other energy nutrients carbohydrates and proteins?
2.25 times the energy
519
Which vitamins are fat soluble?
- A
- D
- E
- K
520
What is the difference between the structure of saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats?
- Saturated have no double bonds
- Monounsaturated only have 1 double bond
- Polyunsaturated have more than 1 double bond
- Polyunsaturated fats are known as Omegas
521
What type of fat is best for health?
Polyunsaturated
522
What are polyunsaturated fats made of?
Essential fatty acids
- Linoleic acid
- Alpha linolec acid
- Arachidonic acid
523
How do dogs get Arachidonic acid?
Form it from linoleic acid
524
How do dogs get Arachidonic acid?
- Can't synthesise
- Essential to diet
- Only found in meat
525
Why are fatty acids important?
- Essential part of cell membranes
- Involved in prostaglandin synthesis
526
How is fat digested?
- Digested by bile from the liver
- Lipase breaks down further to glycerol and FA
- When small enough, enter blood stream
- Will provide energy or be stored for future
- Liver can convert it to an energy source
527
What is linoleic acid?
- An essential fatty acid
- Omega 6
- Found in vegetable oils and meat
528
What is alpha-linoleic acid?
- An essential fatty acid
- Omega 3
- Found in fish oils
529
Fat facts
- Good for dogs requiring high prolonged energy
- Provides insulation
- Enhances palatability of food
- Aids absorption of fat soluble vitamins
- Synthesises hormones
- Has metabolic and structural functions
(Cell membranes)
530
What are the water soluble vitamins?
- Vitamin C
- Vitamin B complex
531
What is the difference between fat and water soluble vitamins?
Water soluble
- Can't be stored, daily intake required
Fat soluble
- Stored in body, excess can lead to toxicity
532
What is another name for vitamin A?
Ascorbic acid
533
What is vitamin C needed for?
- Intracellular functions
- Protein synthesis
- Antioxidant
- Most animals can synthesis own from glucose
- Guinea pigs need this in diet from greens
- Guinea pigs get scurvy when deficient
534
What vitamins make up the B complex?
- Thiamine (B1)
- Riboflavin (B2)
- Pantothenic acid
- Niacin
- Pyridoxine (B6)
- Cobalamin (B12)
- Biotin
- Folic acid
- Choline
535
What is B1 vitamin?
Thiamine
536
What is B2 vitamin?
Riboflavin
537
What is B6 vitamin?
Pyridoxine
538
What are B vitamins needed for?
- Components of enzymes
- Constituent of cell walls
- Synthesis of DNA with folic acid
539
What is B12?
Cobalamin
540
Why can a diet high in raw fish cause B vitamin deficiency?
- Contains thiaminase, breaks down thiamine
- Leads to deficiency
- Seen in garter snakes
- Cook fish, supplement or vary diet to avoid
- Thiamine also destroyed at high temperatures and in some food processing
- Deficiency can lead to anorexia, neurological disorders, weakness and heart failure
541
Which B vitamin deficiency is seen in animals with GI disease and what does this lead to?
- Cobalamin (B12)
- Leads to anorexia and weight loss
542
What symptoms can be associated with other B vitamin deficiencies?
- Fatty liver
- Oral ulcers
- Anaemia
- Poor growth
- Skin disorders
543
What happens to excess B vitamins?
Easily lost in urine as water soluble
544
What is the name for vitamin A?
Retinol
545
What is vitamin A needed for?
- Visual pigments
- Healthy skin/coat/teeth by maintaining cell structure
- Often found in form of precursor carotenoids from yellow/orange fruit and vegetables
- Dogs can convert Beta carotene to vitamin A
- Cats need dietary source
546
What problems are caused by vitamin A deficiency and excess?
- Deficiency causes weakness, weight loss, skin conditions, vision problems at night
- Excess stored in the liver and causes toxicity
- Causes ankylosis of joints and fused vertebrae
Cats are prone to this and develop when fed high liver diet
547
What is vitamin D needed for?
- Calcium and phosphorous homeostasis
- Stimulates calcium absorption in intestines in conjunction with parathormone
548
How is vitamin D made?
- Can be synthesised in skin from lipid compounds when access to sunlight
- Poor source due to fur
- UV light essential for reptiles
549
What problems occur with deficiency and excess vitamin D?
- Deficiency affects calcium and phospherous metabolism
- Leads to bone problems
- Rickets in young
- Osteomalacia (soft bones)
- Excess causes hypercalceamia
- Leads to calcification of soft tissue
- Calcification of kidneys causes renal failure
550
What is vitamin E needed for?
- Antioxidant; prevents free radicals damaging cells by oxidisation
- Protects cell membranes
- More needed if diet higher in polyunsaturated fats as they are easily oxidised
551
What problems occur with vitamin E deficiency?
- In dogs; muscle dystrophy and reproductive failure
- Cats eating oily fish and rancid fat (PUFAs) but deficient in vitamin E can get pancreatitis
552
What is vitamin K needed for?
- Regulation of clotting factors
553
What problems occur with deficiency and excess vitamin K?
- Deficiency rare as synthesised by bacteria in small intestines
- Haemorrhage may occur if levels low
- Levels may be low if vit K agonist has been given (Warfarin)
- Deficiency can occur if rat poison ingested
- Excess can produce anaemia in young animals
554
What do antioxidants do?
- Prevents oxidisation (cell damage)
- Improved palatability
- Prolongs shelf life
555
What refers to minerals on food analysis labels?
Ash
556
What are macrominerals?
Needed in large amounts
- Calcium
- Phosphorous
- Magnesium
- Potassium
- Sodium and chloride
557
What are the important microminerals?
Needed in small amounts
- Copper
- Iodine
- Iron
- Zinc
- Cobalt
- Selenium
558
Whats is copper needed for?
- Formation of RBCs and skin/hair pigmentation
- Bedlington terriers have tendancy to accumulate copper in liver- develop toxicity
559
What is iodine needed for?
- Thyroxine production
- Deficiency can show hypothyroidism signs
560
What is iron needed for?
- Used in haemoglobin to utilise oxygen
- Deficiency leads to anaemia
- Deficiency can occur with chronic blood loss
- Low levels cause fatigue
561
What is zinc needed for?
- Growth
- Reproduction
- Wound healing
- Immune responses
562
What is cobalt needed for?
Part of vitamin B12 molecule
563
What is selenium needed for?
- An important antioxidant
- Works with vitamin E
564
What is calcium needed for?
- Muscle contraction
- Nerve impulse transmission
- Clotting
- Bones and teeth
MOST COMMON MINERAL
565
What is the most common mineral?
Calcium
566
What is phosporous needed for?
- Bones and teeth
- Many enzyme systems
- 2ND MOST COMMON MINERAL
567
What is the 2nd most common mineral?
Phosphorous
568
What problems can occur with excess and deficiency in calcium?
Excess
- Developmental abormalaties - joint problems
- Urinary/renal calculi or bladder sludge in rabbit
Deficiency
- Can be caused by lactation
- Long term causes poor growth, poor bone mineralisation and loss of teeth
- Common in lizards; fractures and deformities
569
What problems can occur with excess and deficiency in phosphorus?
Excess
- Developmental abnormalities
- Soft tissue calcification
Deficiency
- Poor growth
- Reduced fertility
- Poor coat
- Poor bone mineralisation
570
What is the optimum calcium to phosphorus ratio for growth?
1:1
571
What is magnesium needed for?
- Neuromuscular transmission
- Component of bones and soft tissue (heart)
572
What problems can occur from excess and deficiency of magnesium?
Deficiency
- Abnormal growth
- Uncoordinated muscles
- Convulsions
- Anorexia
Excess
- Formation of struvite crystals
573
What are sodium and chloride needed for?
- Maintaining osmotic pressure
- Acid base balance
574
What problems can occur with excess and deficiency in sodium and chloride?
Deficiency
- Inability to maintain water balance
- Poor skin/hair
Excess
- Increased water intake (thirst)
- Seizures
575
What is potassium needed for?
- Osmoregulation
- Acid base balance
- Nerve and muscle function
576
What are the problems that can occur with excess and deficiency in potassium?
Excess
- Seen in blocked cats
- Paresis (partial paralysis)
- Bradycardia, cardiac arrhythmias
Deficiency
- Weakness
- Poor growth
- Anorexia
- Neck ventroflexion (bent ventrally); common in renal cats
577
What is the main intracellular positive ion (cation)?
Potassium
578
What food sources contain calcium and how are levels controlled in the body?
- Animal products containing bone
- Controlled by parathyroid, calcitonin and vitamin D
579
What food sources contain phosphorous?
Meat
580
What food sources contain magnesium?
- Bones
- Oilseed
- Grains/fibres
581
What food sources contain potassium?
Grains and fibres
582
What food sources contain sodium and chloride?
- Fish
- Eggs
- Poultry
583
When are omega 3 fish oils supplemented?
May be beneficial in some kidney, heart, skin, and joint diseases
584
What joint supplements are used?
- Glucosamine
- Chondroitin
- Green lipped muscle
585
When are antioxidants vitamin E, selenium and beta-carotene supplemented?
Senior diets to slow progression of cell damage
586
When are pro and prebiotics use?
Gastrointestinal problems to promote growth of healthy gut bacteria
587
When is L-carnitine supplemented?
Weight loss diets as helps with fat metabolism
588
How is water in the body split into different spaces?
60% Water
40% Intracellular fluid
20% Extracellular fluid
- 15% Interstitial spaces
- 5% Plasma/lymph
- 1% Transcellular
589
How much water is used in different body processes?
- 20mls/kg for Respiration
- 20mls/kg for Urine
- 10mls/kg for faeces
590
How can different hormones affect appeite?
Hypothalamus
- Stimulates hunger when glucose levels low
- Produce stop + go hormones, leptin and ghrelin
Thyroid hormones
- Affect metabolic rate, in turn affect appetite
591
Gene
- Sequences of base pairs along DNA chain
- Control heredity
592
Allele
- Slightly different versions of the same trait
- Caused by mutations
- Different expression of trait
- E.G. colour
593
Mutations in somatic cells vs germ cells
- Somatic cells, changes confined to that animal
- Germ cells, changes passed to offspring
594
Sex linked gene
- Located on sex chromosome
- Commonly only seen on specific sex
- Orange coat + Haemophilia A on X chromosome
595
Lethal gene
- Combination not compatible with life
- 2 copied of Manx cat results in death
596
What are Mendel's 1st and 2nd law?
Law of equal segregation
- Offspring inherit one allele from each parent
Law of independent assortment
- Inheritance of one trait not dependent on another
597
Monohybrid cross
- Studies inheritance of one trait
- Phenotype of offspring establishes which allele is dominant
- Knowing dominant allele allows further tests
