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Animal Transport Flashcards

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1
Q

Describe an open circulatory system?

A

Blood is not always held within the blood vessels and can circulate through the body cavity so that cells are immersed directly in the blood.

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2
Q

How does an open circulatory system work in insects?

A

In insects it is achieved by a dorsal tube- shaped heart found under the upper surface of the insect. The heart will pump blood towards the head by peristalsis; it re-enters the heart through pores called ostia

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3
Q

Describe the open circulatory system of a locus?

A

.Blood bathes in the tissues directly
.Little control over direction of circulation
.No respiratory pigment
.Blood pumped at low pressure in to a fluid filled cavity - the haemocoel

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4
Q

How do locus’ get their blood back to their head and heart?

A

Movement of muscles and valves assist

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5
Q

Why is an open circulatory system not appropriate for a larger more active animal?

A

Blood will flow at a low pressure through the body cavity and would therefore not be sufficient to supply the demand of the respiring cells in a larger more active animal

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6
Q

Describe a closed circulatory system?

A

.The blood is enclosed within the blood vessels
.Tissues are not in direct contact with the blood, a separate fluid called tissue fluid exits in the capillaries and bathes the cells.
.This allows the heart to pump at a higher pressure and therefore the blood can flow more quickly

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7
Q

What are the three advantages of a closed circulatory system?

A
  1. The blood flow can be directed to where it is needed, by vasoconstriction and dilation.
  2. The blood flow us more rapid and efficient
  3. More efficient delivery of oxygen and nutrients (glucose) and removal of waste products such as CO2
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8
Q

What type of circulatory system do fish have?

A

A single closed system

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9
Q

What is a single closed circulatory system?

A

The blood stays in vessels on a single pathway around the body. Blood only passes through the heart once, before returning to gills.

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10
Q

What is the route of the blood in a single closed system?

A

Heart
Gills
Body
Heart

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11
Q

Why do some mammals require a double circulatory system?

A

.They are endothermic (produce their own body heat)
.They have a high metabolic rate and high energy requirement
. They therefore require a large amount of glucose and oxygen and the removal of waste products such as CO2

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12
Q

Describe a double circulatory system?

A

A system consisting of a network of vessel which carry materials round the body in the blood, The heart pumps the blood and it goes twice through the heart.

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13
Q

What are the two component to a double circulatory system?

A

The Pulmonary system

The Systemic Circulatory system

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14
Q

What are the three advantages to a Double circulatory system?

A
  1. The heart increases the pressure after it has passed through the lungs, so the blood flows more quickly to the body tissues,
  2. More efficient delivery of oxygen and nutrients to body tissues.
  3. The oxygen supply to heart muscles better
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15
Q

Between the systemic and pulmonary system, which can carry blood at a higher pressure?

A

The systemic

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16
Q

What is the structure of the mammalian heart?

A

.A 4 chambered pump for both pulmonary and systemic circulatory systems.
.A double pump working synchronously keeping oxygenated and deoxygenated blood separated

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17
Q

Describe the characteristics of the cardiac muscle?

A

The cardiac muscle is myogenic and therefore beats from within the muscle itself to never gets tired.

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18
Q

What is the function on the Vena Cava?

A

Returns blood from all organs except the lungs

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19
Q

What is the function on the Right Atrium?

A

receives blood from the body organs and pushes it into the ventricle

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20
Q

What is the function on the Avioventricular (tricuspid) valve?

A

Stops blood flowing back into the atrium as the ventricle contracts

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21
Q

What is the function on the Right ventricle?

A

Receives blood from the atrium and pushes it into the lungs

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22
Q

What is the function on the Pulmonary Artery?

A

Distributes blood to the lungs

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23
Q

What is the function on the Aorta?

A

Distributes blood to all organs except the lungs

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24
Q

What is the function on the Aortic valve?

A

Stops blood flowing back into the ventricle as the ventricle relaxes

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25
Q

What is the function on the left ventricle?

A

Receives blood from the atrium and pushes it to the body

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26
Q

What is the function on the Atrioventricular (bicuspid) valve?

A

Stops blood flowing back into the atrium as the ventricle contracts

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27
Q

What is the function on the left atrium?

A

Receives blood from the lungs and pushes it into the ventricle

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28
Q

What is the function on the Pulmonary Vein?

A

Returns blood from the lungs

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29
Q

What is the first step of the cardiac cycle?

A

.Atria fill with blood from the Vena Cava and pulmonary vein (all chambers relaxed)
.Pressure in the atria rises
.Blood trickles into ventricles through the open atrioventricular valves (bicuspid and tricuspid valves)

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30
Q

What occurs in Atrial Systole?

A

When the walls of the atria contracts. The volume of the atria decreases and the pressure increases, blood enters the ventricles down a pressure gradient.

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31
Q

What occurs after Atrial Systole?

A

Atria empties as the rest of the blood is forced into the ventricles, through the Atrioventricular valves.

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32
Q

What occurs when the ventricles are full of blood?

A

.After a short delay to allow full contraction of the atria, the walls of the ventricles contract (ventricular systole). Atria relax.
.The walls of the ventricles contract from the bottom up, reducing the volume and increasing the pressure in the ventricles

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33
Q

What occurs to the atrioventricular valves after ventricular contraction?

A

They close to prevent backflow of blood

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34
Q

What causes the semi lunar valve to open?

A

The pressure in the ventricles is greater than the pressure in the aorta and pulmonary artery. This pushes open the semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic valves) in the arteries.

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35
Q

What is the last step in the cardiac cycle?

A

.Blood is forced out of the heart into the aorta and pulmonary arteries
.Ventricles relax, pressure falls
.Semilunar valves shut

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36
Q

When do the Atrioventricular valves open?

A

The AV valves are open when the pressure above the valves is greater than below it.
.The atrioventricular valves opens when the pressure in the atrium is greater than the ventricle

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37
Q

When does the Semilunar valve open?

A

Semilunar opens when the pressure in the ventricle is greater than the artery

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38
Q

Why do the valves in the heart close?

A

To prevent backflow

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39
Q

What causes the lub-dub sound in the heart?

A

This occurs due to the closing of the atrioventricular valve followed by the closing of the semilunar valve

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40
Q

What is the pressure in the atria like? Why?

A

The atria have a thin muscle wall which exerts a small pressure to push blood into the ventricles

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41
Q

What is the pressure in the Right Ventricle like? Why?

A

The right ventricle has higher pressure than the atria, as it has to push blood to the lungs therefore the m muscle wall is thicker than the atria.

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42
Q

What is the pressure in the Left Ventricle like? Why?

A

The left ventricle has the highest pressure as it has to pump blood through the aorta to the rest of the body. This means that the muscle wall is up to 3 times thicker than the right ventricle.

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43
Q

Define Myogenic?

A

Muscle contractions initiated within the muscle itself

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44
Q

What is the Sino Atrial Node (SAN)? Where is it located?

A

.The heart’s internal pacemaker

.Located on the top right atrium

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45
Q

What is the function of the Sinoatrial node (SAN)?

A

It initiates the wave of excitation (electrical stimulation)

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46
Q

What is atrial systole and what causes it?

A

Atrial systole is when the walls of the atria contract simultaneously, this is caused by the wave of excitation.

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47
Q

What is the layer of non-conductive tissue called? What is its function?

A

The atrioventricular septum which prevents the wave spreading to the ventricles.

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48
Q

What happens to the wave of excitation after passing the atrioventricular septum?

A

The wave of excitation reaches the AVN (Atrioventricular node) and is delayed to allow the atria to complete contraction before ventricular systole.

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49
Q

After a brief pause at the Atrioventricular node what happens to the wave of excitation?

A

The wave of excitation then travels down highly conductive tissues in the septum called the bundle of His. As it reaches the apex it passes along the branching Purkinje Fibres up the walls of the ventricles, causing them to simultaneously contract from the bottom upwards: ventricular systole.

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50
Q

What is diastole?

A

When all the chambers of the heart simultaneously relax, the last stage of the cardiac cycle.

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51
Q

How can the electrical signal that passes through the heart be monitored?

A

Using an ECG (Electrocardiogram), this involves using detective electrodes on the skin.

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52
Q

What are the three layers to a blood vessel?

A

Tunica Externa
Tunica Media
Tunica Intima/ Interna
Lumen

53
Q

What are the main features of the tunica externa?

A

.Made of collagen

.Strong fibrous protein which helps vessels withstand high pressure

54
Q

What are the main features of the tunica media?

A

.Smooth muscle which can contract and constrict the vessel

.Elastic tissue which allows stretch and recoil of the vessel - this layer helps sustain blood pressure

55
Q

What are the main features of the tunica intima/ interna?

A

.Single layer of endothelial cells

.Smooth and flat for reduced friction of the flowing blood

56
Q

What is the lumen?

A

The cavity through which the blood flows

57
Q

What is an artery and what is its function?

A

A blood vessel that takes high pressure blood away from the heart to other regions of the body

58
Q

What is a vein and what is its function?

A

A blood vessel that returns low pressure blood to the heart from the lungs and the body

59
Q

What is a capillary and what is its function?

A

A blood vessel that connects small arteries (arterioles) with small veins (venules) and allows exchange of materials with the tissues.

60
Q

What is the walls of Arteries and Arterioles like?

A

Thick walls to resist high pressured blood

61
Q

What is the size of the lumen like in arteries and arterioles ?

A

Narrow lumen to maintain high pressure

62
Q

Why do arteries and arterioles have lots of elastic fibres/ tissue in its walls?

A

Allows it to stretch to accommodate surge of blood from ventricles and recoil to maintain pressure.

63
Q

How do arterioles adjust the amount of blood delivered to certain areas of the body?

A

They adjust their diameter by contracting or relaxing smooth muscle

64
Q

What is the tissue on the inside of arterioles/ arteries, why is it this tissue?

A

Smooth endothelium to reduce friction

65
Q

What is the structure of a capillary?

A

A single layer of cells in the wall (endothelium) no elastic tissue

66
Q

What slows the flow of blood in the capillaries?

A

The small diameter of lumen which causes friction with walls and slows the flow of blood.

67
Q

Why is it important that the blood flow in capillaries is slow?

A

Low speed of flow enhances the ability to exchange materials with the surrounding tissue by diffusion

68
Q

What in the capillaries allows solutes and ions to leak out?

A

GAPS NOT PORES

69
Q

What is the outer layer of veins made of and why?

A

Collagen

70
Q

What is the structure of the vein?

A

Thinner wall as the pressure of blood is reduced, wider lumen, little elastic tissue in wall (no stretch and recoil), valves to prevent backflow of blood.

71
Q

What is the blood flow in the veins like?

A

Blood in the vein is no longer influenced by the contractions of the heart and is under very low pressure

72
Q

How does blood from organs above the heart get back?

A

Gravity

73
Q

How is the pressure maintained in the arteries ?

A

The pressure is maintained due to the elastic tissue of the arteries

74
Q

What is the pattern of pressure in the arteries?

A

Rhythmical rise and fall in pressure due top ventricular contraction and relaxation

75
Q

What causes a small decrease in the pressure in the arteries?

A

Friction with blood vessel walls, leads to a small decrease in pressure

76
Q

What is the pressure like in the Arterioles ?

A

Blood is at a lower pressure as it is further away from the heart

77
Q

Why does a larger pressure drop occur in the arterioles?

A

Arterioles have a larger total surface area and narrower lumen therefore a large drop in pressure occurs here.

78
Q

What causes a decrease in the pressure in the arterioles?

A

Pressure drop is greater if the arterioles are constricted

79
Q

Why do capillaries have a large drop in pressure?

A

Capillaries have a larger total cross sectional area therefore even greater resistance to blood flow and a further drop in pressure

80
Q

Why do capillaries have a large drop in pressure?

A

Capillaries have a larger total cross sectional area therefore even greater resistance to blood flow and a further drop in pressure
.Leakage from capillaries

81
Q

What is the function of skeletal muscle in the return of the blood back to the heart?

A

Skeletal muscles are used to massage the veins and help return blood to the heart

82
Q

How are capillaries well adapted to be an exchange site between blood and body cells?

A

They are well adapted as they have thin, permeable walls, they provide a large total surface area and blood flows slowly through them.

83
Q

What can pass in and out of the capillaries?

A

Blood is contained within the vessels, but fluid from the plasma is able to escape into the tissues - tissue fluid.

84
Q

What does tissue fluid provide the cells with when it bathes them?

A 
.Glucose
.Amino Acids
.Fatty acids
.Mineral Ions
.Oxygen
85
Q

What does tissue fluid remove?

A

Toxic Waste

86
Q

Why do the arterioles have high pressure?

A

High pressure is due to the pumping action of the heart and the resistance to blood flow in the capillaries

87
Q

What forces the fluid part of the blood out od the vessels and into the tissue?

A

Hydrostatic pressure

88
Q

What opposes the outward flow of the tissue fluid?

A

The reduced water potential of the blood (due to plasma proteins)

89
Q

What causes a net flow movement of tissue fluid out of the capillary?

A

The hydrostatic pressure is greater than the osmotic force therefore there is a net flow of fluid out taking glucose, oxygen, and ions into the tissue.

90
Q

Why is there a net movement of tissue fluid back into the venules?

A

Blood pressure is reduced here so the Hydrostatic Pressure is now less than the reduced water potential of the blood due to the plasma proteins. There is a net flow of fluid back into the capillaries taking CO2 and urea from the tissues.

91
Q

Where does the left over tissue fluid drain into?

A

Some of the tissue fluid drains into the lymphatic system and is returned to the venous system through the thoracic duct near the heart.

92
Q

What is the function of digested food products in the blood?

A

Supply each cell with nutrients

93
Q

What is the function of hormone in the blood?

A

To take hormone from glands to all cells in the body

94
Q

What is the function of Proteins - albumin/ fibrinogen in the blood?

A

Fibrinogen for blood clotting. Maintains water potential gradient of blood

95
Q

What is the function of antibodies in the blood?

A

Fight Infection

96
Q

What is the function of Ions in the blood?

A

Function specific to each ion e.g. blood clotting and bone formation.

97
Q

What are the 5 Key roles of blood?

A
  1. Transport
  2. Distributes Heat
  3. Buffer
  4. Defence
  5. Provides pressure for some organ function
98
Q

What is the carriage of oxygen in water at body temperature?

A

The solubility of oxygen is 0.025cm3 per cm3 of water therefore per dm3 of H2O = 25cm3 of O2

99
Q

What is the carriage of oxygen by haemoglobin at body temperature?

A

.In 1dm3 of blood there is 150g of haemoglobin
.1g of haemoglobin can combine with 1.3cm3 of oxygen
.Per dm3 of blood = 195 cm3 of oxygen

100
Q

Why is the beginning of the oxygen dissociation curve not very steep?

A

The deoxyhaemoglobin has a ‘tense’ tight structure. It is hard for the first oxygen molecule to combine to a haem group

101
Q

Why does the oxygen dissociation curve suddenly increase in gradient?

A

Once the first haem group has bonded the structure of the haemoglobin is disturbed making it easier for the second oxygen molecule to combine.

102
Q

Why does the oxygen dissociation graph plateau at the end ?

A

When the fourth oxygen molecule is attached it is described as oxyhaemoglobin and the graph plateaus.

103
Q

What is the shape of the oxygen dissociation curve?

A

Sigmoid Shaped (‘S’ shaped)

104
Q

What is the structure of Haemoglobin?

A

.4 polypeptide chains (2X alpha and 2X beta)
.4 Haem groups (prosthetic groups)
.4 O2 molecules that can attach when haemoglobin is fully saturated to oxyhaemoglobin

105
Q

What pO2 is typical of respiring tissues?

A

Almost complete dissociation of O2

106
Q

What does the steepness of the oxygen dissociation curve correlate to?

A

Corresponds to the easy dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin. Typical of blood in capillaries.

107
Q

What is the typical pO2 of the lungs, pulmonary veins and systemic arteries? Why?

A

Little dissociation of O2, ideal for the transport of oxygen.

108
Q

What are the two ‘other’ (minor) ways in which Carbon Dioxide is transported?

A

.Plasma (5%)

.Combines with haemoglobin to form CARBAMINO-HAEMOGLOBIN (10%)

109
Q

What is the main way carbon dioxide is transported?

A

Most is converted in the red blood cells to carbonic acid (bicarbonates)

110
Q

What happens to the carbonic acid?

A

Dissociates into hydrogen and hydrogen carbonate ions

111
Q

What causes the oxyhaemoglobin to dissociate into oxygen and haemoglobin?

A

The hydrogen ions that were created from the carbonic acid

112
Q

What is produced when hydrogen ions are buffered by the haemoglobin?

A

Haemoglobinic acid

113
Q

What are the 6 steps to the transport of Carbon Dioxide?

A
  1. Diffusion of CO2 into the red blood cell
  2. Carbonic anhydrase catalyses the conversion of CO2 and water into carbonic acid
  3. Carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen and hydrogen carbonate ions
  4. Hydrogen carbonate ions diffuse into the blood plasma, and chloride ions diffuse into the red blood cells to preserve electrical neutrality
  5. Hydrogen ions attach to the haemoglobin to form Haemoglobinic acid and displaces the oxygen
  6. Oxygen diffuses out of the red blood cells into the plasma and tissues.
114
Q

What is the function of chloride ions in the transport of CO2?

A

Preserve electrical neutrality

115
Q

What is formed when hydrogen ions bond with haemoglobin?

A

Haemoglobinic acid

116
Q

What catalyses CO2 and water into carbonic acid?

A

Carbonic Anhydrase

117
Q

What is the Bohr Effect?

A

This is the theory that as the pCO2 increases the percentage saturation of haemoglobin at the same pO2 decreases

118
Q

What effect does the Bohr Effect have on a graph?

A

The curve shifts to the right

119
Q

How does the concentration of Carbon Dioxide effect the H+ production?

A

The more carbon dioxide around the more H+ produced (from carbonic acid)

120
Q

What is the role of H+ ions in the displacement of oxygen?

A

The H+ displace the oxygen from the oxyhaemoglobin and the less saturated it becomes at the same partial pressure of 02.

121
Q

When is the Bohr Effect observed?

A

This effect is observed in muscles during exercise and is responsible for the release of oxygen from capillaries to these highly respiring tissues.

122
Q

What four factors effect the shifting of the oxygen dissociation curve to the right?

A

.Decrease in pH
.Increase in temperature
.Increase pCO2
.Increase in 2,3-BPG

123
Q

What is the shape of the oxygen dissociation curve for myoglobin like?

A

.No ‘s’ shape
.Graph in linear
.Steep incline

124
Q

What are the differences between myoglobin and haemoglobin ?

A

.Myoglobin has a high affinity for O2
.Becomes fully saturated with O2 at lower pO2
.Myoglobin acts as an O2 store in the muscles
.Myoglobin provides O2 to muscles during extreme aerobic respiration.

125
Q

What are the structural differences between foetal and adult haemoglobin?

A

Adult - 2 alpha and 2 beta chains

Foetal - 2 alpha and 2 delta chains

126
Q

What are the difference in characteristics between foetal and adult haemoglobin?

A

Foetal haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen

127
Q

What are the three characteristics of lugworms?

A

.Adapted to live in environments with low O2
.Low metabolic rate
.Lugworms pumps sea water through its burrow, giving access to the limited amount of O2 present.

128
Q

What happens to humans blood at high altitude?

A

EPO is released which increases the production of red blood cells

129
Q

How does a llamas affinity for oxygen compare to a low land animals affinity?

A

The lama has a higher affinity due to its high altitude environment.

Biology AS (14 decks)

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