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Cells > Animal and Human Cell Biology > Flashcards

Animal and Human Cell Biology Flashcards

1
Q

What does the plasma membrane contain?

A

Specific proteins, lipids and sugars, identified from fluorescent microscopy

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2
Q

What does the plasma membrane do?

A

Surround the cell

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3
Q

What are phospholipids?

A

Amphiphatic and make biomembranes

in the presence of water, phospholipids assemble to make a lipid bilayer

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4
Q

What affects membrane fluidity?

A

Steroids but also serve as hormones
Cholesterol reduces it at moderate temp and avoids solidification at low temp
Lipid composition also affects other features such as membrane curvature

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5
Q

What is cholesterol also used?

A

Vitamin D and hormoes

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6
Q

What is the idea of the fluid mosaic model?

A

Proteins swim in the lipid biolayer

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7
Q

Describe the plasma membrane

A

Fluid, plasma membrane of neuronal cell is pulled out with laser tweezers

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8
Q

What are lipid rafts?

A

membrane regions that assemble specialised lipids and proteins to perform a certain task

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9
Q

Transport across biomembranes

A

Semipermeable - uncharged and hydrophobic molecules can pass through the membrane, charged molecules cannot

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10
Q

Which proteins are embedded in membranes?

A

enzymes, receptors, cell-cell recognition, intracellular joining and attachment to extracellular matrix and intracellular cytoskeleton

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11
Q

Membrane potential

A

Channels cooperate to form a membrane potential over their plasma membrane
More positive charge outside and more negative inside
Non excitable i.e. epithelial cells don’t chain their potential but excitable ones can

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12
Q

What is membrane potential due to

A

difference in ion permeability of plasma membrane and the activity of the ion pumps

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13
Q

Establishing a resting membrane potential

A

Potassium leakage channel and sodium potassium pump
4 sodium ions pumped inside - 4 potassium and 7 sodium inside, 6 potassium and 1 sodium in, now potassium equal at 4 and 7 sodium inside and 1 outside

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14
Q

Cell to cell contact

A

Cells in epithelium establish tight lateral and basal contact
Resist forces, stick together to make sure there is no diffusion

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15
Q

What is a tight junction

A

Diffusion barrier, hold cells together, consist of plasma membrane proteins that interact, resisting liquid nature of the plasma membrane

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16
Q

What is an adherence junction

A

Consists of cadherin (bridge between cells) and catenin,(link to the actin cytoskeleton), appear to be involved in controlling actin organisation in epithelial cells, supporting strengthen and resistance against forces

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17
Q

What is a gap junction

A

Small channels, channels between the cells, each made of connexions, proteins cannot pass unless they are small, transport of ions, communication between cells, interacting very tightly

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18
Q

What is desmosome

A

Contain specialised Catherin proteins that interact with each other, stabilises the cell, resist shear force in epithelia and in muscle, linking to intermediate filaments
AS a bundle they can provide strength

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19
Q

Where are intemediate filaments not present?

A

In structures with a cell wall

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20
Q

Hemidesmosome

A

Half desmosome, don’t interact with another desmosome, they interact with the extracellular matrix, contain proteins including integrins, in skin epithelial cells, anchor epithelia cell to basal lamina

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21
Q

Extracellular matrix

A

fibres of secreted proteins (collagen, matrix proteins, glycoproteins), holds tissues together, provides strength directly cell migration

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22
Q

What do macrophages do?

A

Sniff the pathogen and hunt it down, find invaders

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23
Q

What happens when the actin on each cell interact?

A

They meet and internal reorganisation happens

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24
Q

A simple intracellular signalling pathway

A

Extracellular signal molecules, receptor protein, intracellular signalling proteins (kinases), effector proteins

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25
Q

Signalling via GTP binding proteins

A

G protein binds GTP, which binds either as GDP or GTP, GTP can be hydrolysed to GDP, ready to get a signal (2 phosphates)
GEF can change GDP to GTP
Switch this off GAP
Small monomeric G proteins -receive signals from many receptors
Large trimeric G proteins - activated by membrane integrated G protein coupled receptors

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26
Q

Protein Kinases

A

An enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from high energy donor molecules such as ATP to specific substrates through phosphorylation

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27
Q

Protein Phosphatase

A

An enzyme that removes a phosphate group from a protein through desphosphorylation

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28
Q

What controls protein activity?

A

Protein kinase and protein phosphate

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29
Q

How many kinases and phosphatases?

A

520 kinases and 150 phosphataases

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30
Q

Signalling via phosphorylation and desphorylation

A

Protein kinase signals on, protein phosphatase signals off, kinases form a signalling cascade

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31
Q

What do kinases do?

A

integrate info and act as microchips

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32
Q

Describe Cdk kinase

A

Has this phosphate been removed, has this phosphate been added, is cyclin present
YES= control of cell cycle progression

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33
Q

Describe Src-type kinase

A

Has this phosphate been removed, has this binding been disrupting, has this phosphate been added
YRS = control of regulate various biological functions

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34
Q

Cytoplasm what does it contain?

A

proteins and RNA, ribosomes - very dense

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35
Q

What is Brownian motion?

A

Put pollen grain into water and they flickered around due to random collisions of water molecules with the particle

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36
Q

DEScribe diffusion

A

not directed, larger objects do not diffuse, a need for active transport by molecular motors In the cytoskeleton

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37
Q

What are the subunits of ribosomes

A

70S (50 and 30) prokaryotes, 80S (60 and 40) eukaryotes

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38
Q

What is S

A

Svedberg Unit - sedimentation behaviour of particles, mass, density and shape will determine S
Ribosomes will travel based on centrifugation
developed a technique of analytical ultracentrifugation

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39
Q

What is translation?

A

matching tRNA to mRNA codon, release of elongation factor TU, formation of peptide bond, elongation factor G triggers a forward movement of ribosome

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40
Q

What is a translation elongation factor?

A

50s, 30s, confirmational change in ribosome might help walking along the mRNA in order to synthesis a protein, molecular ratchet

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41
Q

What is a polysome?

A

Numerous ribosomes operate along a single mRNA molecule, can be in the cytoplasm or on other membranes

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42
Q

What does the nuclear contain?

A

Euchromatin, heterochromatin, lamina, nuclear pore, nuclear envelope (double biomembrane)

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43
Q

Describe nuclear pores

A

Highly order multi protein complexes, eight fold symmetry, numerous proteins build the pore and control nuclear transport

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44
Q

What are nucleoporins?

A

proteins that make the nuclear pore

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45
Q

How is the nuclear pore kept in place

A

by binding to a network of fibres called the nuclear lamina, inside the nuclear envelope

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46
Q

What are the functions of nuclear lamina?

A

can cause disease, keeps the nucleus in shape, anchoring chromosomes in transcription and control, for animals only

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47
Q

What are the lamina that make the cage?

A

LaminB1, Lamina A/C, DIC and overlay

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48
Q

What happens to nuclear lamina in mitosis?

A

It disassembles, nuclear envelope disappears and chromosomes are exposed, nuclear lamina is tough to get rid of
Phosphorylation gets rid of lamina, then it is formed from dephospho rylation, fusion of nuclear envelope fragments

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49
Q

Describe the nucleolus

A

Forms ribosomes, granular component(ribosome assembly site), fibrillar centres (rRNA transcription), ribosomal proteins are imported into the nucleolus, Assembled ribosomes are released,

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50
Q

Heterochromatin

A

remains packed after mitosis, transcriptional inactive, 10% of DNA

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51
Q

Euchromatin

A

Transcriptional active

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52
Q

What results in chromatin

A

Chromosomal DNA is highly folded involving interactions with structural proteins

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53
Q

What happens to DNA in mitosis

A

tightly packed during mitosis by which DNA is inherited (condensing)

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54
Q

What are proteases?

A

Proteins that cleave other proteins

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55
Q

Describe histones?

A

positively charged proteins, 4 types, H2A, H2B, H3 AND H4

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56
Q

What are the types of RNA polymerase in eukaryotes

A

1: ribosomal RNA
2: mRNA
3: tRNA

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57
Q

What are the types of polymerase in plants

A

siRNAS for heterochromatin formation

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58
Q

What type of polymerase is in prokaryotes?

A

Just RNA polymerase

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59
Q

Describe transcription

A

Numerous transcription factors bind to the TATA box in the promoter
RNA polymerase binds to to the template strand to make a copy strand and the RNA is released

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60
Q

Where is transcription and translation occurring for pro and eu

A

Pro: cytoplasm, many genes on one mRNA
Eu: Nuclear, cytoplasm, one mRNA for one gene

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61
Q

Endomembrane systen

A

Nucleus, ER, Golgi, Lysosome, endosomal compartment, transport vesicles
Compartments of the endomembrane system that are connected by transport vesicles that serve material exchange such as lipids and proteins

62
Q

Describe transport vesicles

A

Carry various cargo, very small e.g. synaptic vesicle, molecular motors move them within the cell via membrane trafficking

63
Q

What are molecular motors

A

enzymes that use ATP to walk along the cytoskeleton

64
Q

What are the 3 types of trafficking pathways?

A

Secretory, endocytic and retrival recycling

65
Q

Secretory pathway

A

Nucleus, ER, Golgi, secreted to plasma membrane and some delivery to other organelles e.g. edosomes

66
Q

Endocytic pathway

A

Things taken up, degration in lysosome

Control response to ligand by taking up receptors

67
Q

Retrival

A

Recycling of molecules that control endocytosis and secretion
Electron microscopy tells us that the organelles exist

68
Q

ER

A

membranous synthesis and transport organelle that is the extension of the nuclear envelope, membrane sacs and branched tubules which are motile

69
Q

What are the two types of ER

A

smooth and rough

70
Q

Describe the sER

A

Production of lipids and steroids, calcium storage, detoxification of drugs, metabolism of carbs

71
Q

Describe the rER

A

processing of secretory proteins

72
Q

Cotranslational translocation into ER

A

ribosome assembles and binds mRNA
If polypeptide contains a signal sequence its target to the ER membrane
The signal peptide is cleaved off and the protein is translated into the ER lumen where it is folded and further processed
Cytosolic proteins can contain signal sequences that target them to other organelles (nucleus, mitochondria, peroxisomes, chloroplasts)

73
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

disc shaped stack of membranes, receives vesicles as cis and releases through trans

74
Q

Oligosaccharide

A

provide protection against pathogens, serves in cell-cell recognition and signalling, marks progression of the protein, helps folding and interaction with other proteins

75
Q

Where are oligosaccharide chains processed?

A

in the Golgi - most proteins that arrive at cis Golgi contain a N-linked oligosaccharide- in Golgi the chain undergoes a stepwise process in different cisterna

76
Q

Endosomal compartment

A

Endosomes are part of the endocytic pathway, sends for recycling or for degradation

77
Q

What are the 3 types of endoscopes?

A

early, recycling and late endoscomes

78
Q

What fuses with the lysosome?

A

late endosome

79
Q

Membrane trafficking along endocytic pathway?

A

formation of a vesicle at the plasma membrane
Fusion of vesicle with early endoscome
degradation or recycling
recycling via recyling endoscome (pH of 6.8)
Maturation of early endoscope to late endosome (pH of 5.5)
pH decreases to pH 4.5
recycling from late endoscope to Golgi
maturation of late endoscope into lysosome (pH of 4.5)

80
Q

Lysosome

A

Vacuole, disposal container, pH of 5 - acid hydrolyses e.g. proteases, lipases

81
Q

What are the pathways for degradation in lysosomes?

A

Phagocytosis, endocytosis, pinocytose

autophagy

82
Q

Phagocytosis

A

in macrophages cleans the body from invading pathogen and damaged cells
some pathogens stop the process and escape the phagosome to infect the host cell
incomplete - underlies the endosymbiont hypothesis

83
Q

Pinocytose

A

uptake of salt proteins and molecules

84
Q

Autophagy

A

cell death, enclosure of cytosol and organelles into an autophagosome, organelles have a limited life time
Under starvation the cell recycles cytosol by autophagy

85
Q

Peroxisomes

A

single membrane bound organelles that contain many enzymes, they are motile, made in endoplasmic reticulum, 50 different enzymes

86
Q

How are peroxisomes made?

A

From endoplasmic reticulum, precursor vesicle, growth by uptake of cytosolic proteins and lipids, they split by fission to produce peroxisomes

87
Q

What are peroxisomes useful for?

A

Digesting fatty acids

88
Q

Describe detoxification of peroxisomes?

A

generates hydrogen peroxide which degrades by catalase

89
Q

What do glyoxysomes?

A

in plant seeds convert fats into sugar by glyoxylate cycle

90
Q

Lipid droplets

A

vary in seize and are enclosed by a monolayer, lipid bodies are fat storage droplets

91
Q

What is a triacylglycerol

A

Fatty acids and lipid

92
Q

What is a nucleomorph>

A

DNA containing relict of an engulfed eukaryote

93
Q

How are lipid droplets made?

A

made at ER, in-between the bilayer

FABP makes fatty acid water soluble, shield the fatty acid by binding it in a hydrophobic pocket

94
Q

Transport vesicles

A

Travel between compartments and plasma membrane, packed with proteins 50 types of integral proteins vSNAREs is most prominent

95
Q

What is membrane specificity provided by?

A

SNARE receptors, vSNARE matches to a t-SNARE

Transport vesicle mattches to early endosome

96
Q

Fusion of a vesicle with target membrane

A

Tethering, docking, fusion

97
Q

What are the coats for transport vesicles?

A

Clathrin, COPI, COPII

98
Q

How is the clathrin coat formed?

A

Cargo, cargo receptor and adaptin, 3 heavy chains and a light chain

99
Q

What is a cargo molecule?

A

anything that needs to be endocytosed

100
Q

What type of a vesicle is the transport vesicle?

A

Naked as the coat gets rapidly lost and interacts with cytoskeleton for intracellular transport

101
Q

Extracellular vesicles

A

Transport vesicles released and are found in body fluids, urin, blood, fluid around brain and spinal cord
contains RNAs and proteins provided by donor cell
Deliver their content to recipient cells

102
Q

Extracellular vesicles interact with the target cell in various ways

A

Interact with the cell surface - stimulation of target cell, membrane receptor transfer
Deliver material to the cell - protein delivery and reprogramming of target cell

103
Q

What can spread cancer?

A

Extracellular vesicles

104
Q

Ectosomes (microvesicles)

A

formation at donors plasma membrane, transfer proteins, mRNAS and miRNAS uptake via fusion with plasma membrane

105
Q

Exosomes

A

Formed at early endoscopes released from late endoscopes, transfer proteins, mRNA and miRNAs, uptake via endocytosis or fusion with recipients plasma membrane

106
Q

Overview of extracellular formation pathways

A

CVV delivered to early endosome, go to MVE to exosomes and go off or can go to lysosome for degradation

107
Q

Function in cell to cell communication of

A

trigger intracellular cell signalling, immune responses, modifying enzyme activity, control of neutron function and blood vessel formaiton

108
Q

Define the cytoskeleton

A

consists of filamentous bio polymers (microtubules, F actin and intermediate filaments) and associated proteins that are modulating the activity, dynamics or organisation of the cytoskeleton (actin binding or microtubule binding protein i.e. molecular motors)

109
Q

Describe skeleton of cytoskeleton

A

connects all parts of cell, supports motility and helps spatial organisation

110
Q

What are the three classes of filaments make up the cytoskeleton?

A

F-actin( short range transport, cell migration), microtubules(long range transport, chromosome inheritance) and intermediate filaments (mechanical strength)

111
Q

Which filaments are part of the trafficking?

A

F-actin and microtubules as molecular motors do not go along intermediate filaments

112
Q

What do intermediate filaments interact with?

A

desmosomes

113
Q

What does the cytoskeleton provide?

A

tracks for intracellular trafficking, stability to the cell

114
Q

What types of actin are there

A

Actin bundles for when a cell relaxes, F actin and actin monomers

115
Q

What is actin

A

binds ATP , globular protein, G-actin is the block protein, protofilament- pearls string of G-actin

116
Q

How does actin exist?

A

as monomers and as polymers

117
Q

What end of actin grows the fastest?

A

plus end

118
Q

What end of actin grows the slowest?

A

Minus end

119
Q

What are the proteins in actin that control the change from G to F actin?

A

Cofilin (polymerising), profilin (depolymerising), thymosin (recycling)
ADP to ATP G actin
G actin is kept in an actin pool

120
Q

Treadmilling of actin

A

filaments fold, protein stables and cell moves forward

lose subunits in the rear and whole thing moves forward

121
Q

Where is actin added?

A

plasma membrane, plus end

122
Q

How is F-actin organised?

A

Actin binding proteins, order bundling, dynamic cross linking and cross linking

123
Q

What does actin form?

A

Cellular protrusions

124
Q

Microtubules

A 
Around nucleus, form extended fibres, alpha and beta tubules 
Dimers form protofilaments
Anti polymerisation
Bind to GTP
13 protofilaments
Dynamic
Forward backward
Tubulin is added and released at one end of the polymer
125
Q

Describe the dynamic nature of microtubule

A

Polymerisation - GTP bound tubules dimers added to plus end, a cap of GTP-tubulin stabilises the growing microtubule
Pausing - GFP to DFP tubules through hydrolysation
Depolymerisation - microtubule becomes unstable and depolymerises in a transition state called a catastrophe
Polymerisation - GTP tubules can bind the shrinking microtubule and establish a new cap called rescue event, microtubules switch between growth and shrinkage

126
Q

What happens at plus end of microtubules?

A

Growing and shrinking
Beta tubules is exposed to the plus end
Dynamic behaviour
Extend to cell periphery

127
Q

How do you see the dynamic behaviour of microtubules and F actin

A

Speckle microscopy

Incorporation of few GFP labeled monomers results in patchy fluorescence

128
Q

What is the difference in dynamics between F actin and microtubules

A

Microtubule ends are dynamic while incorporated tubules remains stationary
F-actin incorporated actin treadmills through the actin filament meshwork

129
Q

What do MAPs do?

A

stabilise tracks

130
Q

What do plus end binding proteins do?

A

Control the dynamics of microtubules and participate in intracellular motility
attachment of microtubules, control of microtubule and of intracellular trafficking by regulating dynein

131
Q

Microtubule minus ends

A

Concentrated near nucleus, centrosomes that contain centrioles
Similar to flagella
Holds nucleating proteins

132
Q

Describe centrioles

A

consist of microtubules, become basal body of flagella and cilia, organise the PCM and ensure its inheritance
most fungi don’t have centrioles
Mother and daughter centriole - not membrane bound
PCM contain gamma tubules ring complexes which nucleate the microtubules

133
Q

What is gamma tubules?

A

not part of microtubule but part of the nucleating site but is similar to alpha and beta tubulin

134
Q

Intermediate filaments

A

Lose mesh work, not the same dynamic behaviour
made of mainly proteins in different parts of the body
But support mechanical strength
Share a coiled coil consisting of alpha helixes which are amphiphatic (charged at one side)
Broad range of coiled coil protein subunits assemble to make them
no ATP or GTP but they self assemble
only in animal cells
can disassemble into subunits to allow movement

135
Q

What molecular motors are microtubule associated?

A

Kinesin and Dynein

136
Q

What molecular motor is associated with actin?

A

Myosin

137
Q

What do molecular motors do?

A

Walk along the cytoskeleton

138
Q

What are minus molecular motors?

A

dynein

139
Q

What are plus molecular motors?

A

kinesin and myosin

140
Q

What is the common feature of all eukaryotic cells?

A

Cells gather material from the environement and duplicate

141
Q

What are the characteristics of a channel?

A

It allows passage of molecules in and out and it can be gated

142
Q

Which are the pathways that deliver material to the lysosome for degradaton?

A

Endocytosis, autophagy and phagocytosis

143
Q

What do molecular motors do?

A

transport cargo along the fibres of the cytoskeleton

mechanical-enzymes

144
Q

Which molecular motor is needed for Golgi?

A

dynein

145
Q

Motor tool box in eukaryotic cells

A

Molecular motor are large protein complexes that hydrolyse ATP or GTP in order to walk along fibres

146
Q

How can you prove that motors are mechanical enzymes

A

Glass slide and coverslip
Pipette myosin molecules, flushed under coverslip, other proteins are washed through with BSA wash
shows actin filaments and add ATP and the motor head moves the actin filament
Use fluorescent microscopy

147
Q

How are motors recycled?

A

Kinesinand dynein bind to the same cargo, active in transport

148
Q

How are collisions avoided

A

Dynein has the ability to change protofilaments while it moves so it can go lateral, kinesis cannot so two kinesin causes a problem

149
Q

What is responsible for Intracellular membrane trafficking

A

Motors

150
Q

What keeps the cell alive?

A

motility in neutrons by axonal transport, connects synapse with cell body
Synapse has to communicate with the cell body to keep the neurone alive
Neurons ahne to cope with long distances so axonal transport helps this

151
Q

Anterograde

A
  • to +
152
Q

Retrograde

A

+ to -

Cells (10 decks)

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