Animal A&P Test 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Cytoplasm
A
-Inner substance of the cell, not including the nucleus
-Composed of cytosol, cytoskeleton and organelles
2
Q
Cytosol
A
Viscous liquid with dissolved electrolytes, amino acids, sugars, and proteins (mostly enzymes)
3
Q
Cytoskeleton
A
-Flexible fibrous structure
-Can change depending on cell’s activities
-Gives support and shape
-Allows movement
-Provides directions for metabolic activity
-Anchors organelles
4
Q
Mitochondria
A
-Powerhouse of the cell
-Respiration occurs here
-Double membrane, site of ATP production
-Contain RNA and DNA
5
Q
Endoplasmic Reticulum
A
-Flattened membranes stacked on each other
-Membrane is single lipid bilayer
-Large surface area
-Rough ER- Ribosomes attached; modifies proteins produced by the ribosomes
-Smooth ER- functions in synthesis and storage of lipids
6
Q
Ribosome
A
-Most numerous organelle
-Composed of two subunits and rRNA
-Manufactures proteins by assembling amino acids
7
Q
Golgi apparatus
A
-Composed of flattened membranes
-Modification, packing, and distribution center for intracellular products and secreted products
8
Q
Lysosome
A
-Type of specialized vesicle formed by the golgi apparatus
-Contains hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes
-Digest various organelles and nuclear components of the cell- autolysis
-Breakdown of nutrient molecules and intracellular debris
9
Q
Autolysis
A
Process of self digestion
10
Q
Proteasome
A
Assists with the breakdown and removal of misfolded and damaged unwanted proteins
11
Q
Peroxisome
A
-Not produced by Golgi, reproduce by pinching in half
-Common in liver and kidney cells-detoxification
-Contain enzymes (peroxidases and catalsases)
12
Q
Vaults
A
-Transportation pods
-Can open and close for pick up and drop off around the cell
13
Q
Centrioles
A
-Hollow cylinders made of microtubules
-Found in pairs
-Help to organize the spindle fibers during mitosis
-Form base for cilia and flagella and are called basal bodies
14
Q
Inclusions
A
Units of metabolic products that the cell has engulfed
Examples:// Vacuoles, vesicles, lipid droplets, pigment granules, glycogen granules
15
Q
Vacuoles
A
Type of inclusion
Clear space in a cell surrounded by cell membrane
“a small emptiness”
16
Q
Vesicles
A
Type of inclusion
Small sac containing fluid; membrane bound
17
Q
Nucleus
A
-Contains hereditary information
-Controls cell activities through protein synthesis
-Contains all the instructions and information to make over 2000 proteins
-Multinucleated or Anucleated
18
Q
Nuclear membrane (envelope)
A
-Composed of two lipid bilayers
-The outer layer is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum
-1/10th of the membrane surface consists of nuclear pores
-Protein molecules can move into the nucleus and RNA can move out
19
Q
Nucleoplasm
A
Gel-like substance that fills the nucleus and is similar to cytosol
20
Q
Chromatin
A
-Loose, uncondensed form of DNA in the nucleus
-Composed of DNA wound around globular proteins called histones
-Arranged in loose fibers in the nucleoplasm when the cell is not dividing
-Condenses into super coiled, X-shaped structures called chromosomes during division
-Pairs of identical chromatids are linked together centrally at the centromere to form each chromosome
21
Q
Nucleoli
A
-A cell may contain one or more
-No membrane
-Ribosomal subunits are manufactured here
-Contains DNA that codes for rRNA
22
Q
Diffusion
A
Moving down a concentration gradientF
23
Q
Facilitated diffusion
A
Passive membrane process
-Requires a carrier protein
-Larger molecules and non lipid soluble molecules
-Example:// glucose
-Rate limited by number of available carrier proteins
24
Q
Osmosis
A
Passive membrane process
-Movement of water through a semipermeable membrane into a solution where the water concentration is lower (opposite direction of diffusion)
25
Osmotic pressure
the force of water moving from one side of the membrane to the other
26
Oncotic pressure
the difference between the osmotic pressure of blood and that of interstitial fluid
27
Isotonic
-ECF and ICF have the same concentration of dissolved substances
28
What happens to cell if the extracellular fluid is hypotonic?
Swell will swell and eventually burst
29
What happens to cell if the extracellular fluid is hypertonic?
Cell will shrink
30
Filtration
*Passive membrane process*
-Hydrostatic pressure (bp) pushes liquids through a membrane
-Based on a pressure gradient rather than a concentration gradient
-Occurs in the kidney where blood is filtered through special capillaries to make urine
31
Active transport
*Active membrane process*
-Requires a carrier protein
-All cells actively transport Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+
-Usually against the concentratino gradient
32
Na+/K+ antiport
*Active membrane process*
-K+ higher inside the cell and Na+ higher outside the cell
-K+ diffuses out of the cell and Na+ diffuses into the cell
-Cell must actively pump K+ into the cell and Na+ out of the cell: 2K+ ions move in and 3 Na+ ions move out
-This maintains membrane potential which is crucial to functioning of the cell
33
Endocytosis
*Active membrane process*
-Cell membrane involutes, engulfs a substance, and closes the cell membrane around it, forming a vesicle
-Phagocytosis and pinocytosis
-Example:// Macrophages
34
Phagocytosis
Endocytosis in which a solid substance is engulfed
*Process of eating by cells
35
Pinocytosis
Endocytosis in which a liquid substance is engulfed
*Process of drinking by cells
36
Macrophage
A type of wbc that phagocytizes debris, dead cells, and invaders
37
Exocytosis
*Active membrane process*
-Substances packaged in vesicles by the ER and Golgi body move through the cytoplasm, fuse with the cell membrane and release contents into the ECF
-Excretion or secretion
*Processing out of a cell
38
Intracellular
within cells
39
Extracellular
outside of cells
40
Inorganic chemistry
Structure, synthesis, and bonding of any material in which metals and metalloid elements are of primary interest
41
Intercellular
between cells
42
Organic chemistry
Study of compounds containing carbon; ALL living things contain carbon
43
Biochemistry
Study of living systems from a chemical viewpoint
44
Covalent bonding
Electron sharing!
-Electrons from one atom are attracted to another atom and vice versa
-The electron shells will eventually overlap and the electrons are shared
45
Ionic bonding
Electron transfer!
-One atom transfers an electron to another atom
-Basis of this bond is the attraction between the cation and the anion
46
Hydrogen bonding
Electrostatic attraction!
-A hydrogen atom is bonded to a small, highly electronegative element
-Polarity of molecules is a facter
-H2O molecules
47
Organic compounds
Contain hydrocarbon groups
-Carbohydrates
-Lipids
-Proteins
-Nucleic acids
48
Inorganic compounds
Do not contain hydrocarbon groups
-water
-salts
-acids
-bases
49
Cranial
pertaining to the head
50
Caudal
pertaining to the tail
51
Dorsal
pertaining to the back
52
Ventral
pertaining to the belly
53
Lateral
pertaining to the side
54
Medial
pertaining to the middle
55
Palmar
pertaining to the sole of the forefeet
56
Plantar
pertaining to the sole of the hindfeet
57
Mitosis
a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells with identical genetic material of the original cell each with the potential to divide again and pass on an identical copy of its DNA
58
Stages of Mitosis
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
59
Prophase
-Chromatin condenses into chromosomes
-Cytoskeleton disassembled
-Centrioles begin to migrate to the poles and the mitotic spindle is formed
-Nuclear membrane disintegrates
60
Metaphase
-Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell along the mitotic spindle
-The centromere of each chromosome is attached to a single spindle fiber
61
Anaphase
-Centromeres split
-Each chromatid becomes its own chromosome and the twin chromosomes are pulled away from each other and toward the centrioles
-Errors here are devastating
62
Telophase
-Chromosomes reach poles and begin to return to chromatin form
-Nuclear membrane forms, nucleoli appears
-Spindle microtubules disassemble
-Cell cleavage
63
Cytokinesis
The conclusion of mitosis in which the cytoplasm divides
64
Replication
synthesis of an exact copy of a cell's DNA to be passed along to the daughter cell when the cell divides
65
Membrane potential
defined as voltage or electrical potential caused by the separation of oppositely charged particles
66
Resting membrane potential
The charge difference between the inside and outside of a cell
67
Flagella
Found singly and are longer; responsible for motility of some cells
68
Cilia
occur in large numbers and are shorter; move synchronously and propel fluids across the cell surface
69
Glycocalyx
the sugar coating that covers the surface of some cells
-Provides cell-to-cell adhesion
-acts as a biological marker for recognition between cells and antibodies and cells and viruses
70
Protein synthesis
-Instructions are contained in the DNA in the nucleus of the cell
71
Gene
a subunit of the DNA molecule that contains all the information needed to make one peptide chain
72
Genetic code
the sequence of nitrogenous base pairs that code for amino acids; the genetic code is said to be redundant, meaning that more than one codon codes for the same amino acid
73
Codon
genetic code of a single amino acid expressed as three bases
74
Promotors
Codons that signal start here
75
Terminators
Codons that signal stop here
76
Translation
the process of manufacturing a new protein using the information on the mRNA molecule
77
Transcription
the formation of mRNA in the nucleus
78
Causes of mutation
-spontaneous
-viruses
-ionizing radiation
-chemicals
-fetal mutagens- chemotherapeutic agents, inhaled anesthetics
79
Enzymes
-proteins that speed up chemical reactions in the body
-Enzymes react with specific substrate to produce a product
80
Metabolism
-a multi-enzymatic process
-a product formed by one reaction becomes the substrate for the next
-some metabolic pathways will use up to 2- enzyme driven steps
81
Activation energy
energy used to start the chemical reaction
82
Anemia
a condition in where there is decreased oxygen carrying capacity of the blood
83
Atom
smallest unit of an element that retains the unique properties of that element
84
Atomic weight
Sum of the atomic mass of the protons and neutrons
85
Atomic number
number of protons in that atom
86
Ions
positive or negatively charged atoms
87
Isotopes
atoms that contain a different number of neutrons than normal
88
Electron shell
area around the nucleus where the electrons are most likely to be found
89
Molecule
smallest particle of a substance composed of two or more atoms that retains the properties of the substance
90
Compound
A substance made up of two or more elements
91
Carbohydrates
-Provide energy
-Store energy
-Building of cellular structures
-Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Examples: table starch, starch, and cellulose
92
Lipids
-Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
-Used in the body for energy
-Stored in fat tissue for future use
-Chemical messengers: hormones
- Classes: neutral fats, phospholipids, steroids, eicosanoids
93
Saturated fatty acids
all bonds in the hydrocarbon chain are single bonds
-found in animal fats (butter, lard)
94
Unsaturated fatty acid
Some double bonds between carbon and hydrogen atoms
-plant origin (corn, olive oil)
95
Proteins
-most common type of organic compound found in the body
-functions:
Cell structures
Structure of body tissues
Control chemical reactions
Regulate growth
Defend against invaders
Transport of ions/molecules
-Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
-Amino acids are the building blocks
-Shape determines function
96
Nucleic acids
DNA and RNA
97
ATP
adenosine triphosphate
-stores energy in the cell
-created through cellular respiration
98
Tissues
-cells of similar type and function that are clustered into layers, sheets, or groups
-the cells composing a tissue or differentiated and have lost the ability to survive independently
99
Tight junctions
-Fusion of outer membranes of adjoining cells
-No matrix filled space between the cells at the site of fusion
100
Desmosomes
-A strong, welded plaque that connects plasma membranes of adjacent cells
-Filaments interlock with one another and also extend into the cytoplasm as anchors
101
Gap Junctions
-Connexons extend from the cytoplasm of one cell to the cytoplasm of the other
-Allow the exchange and passage of nucleotides, AAs, sugar, ions and other nutrients
102
Simple squamous epithelia
-Protected areas of the body
-Often involved in the passage of gas or liquid
-Important in reducing friction of the body
103
Simple cuboidal epithelia
-Single layer of cubical cells
-Protected regions of body
-Involved in secretion and absorption
104
Simple columnar epithelia
-Elongated and closely packed together
-Thicker and more protective
-Associated with absorption and secretion
-Can be ciliated
105
Stratified squamous epithelia
-Multiple layers of flattened cells
-Able to withstand mechanical and chemical stresses and is a protective layer
-Outer layers continually worn away and replaced
106
Stratified cuboidal epithelia
-Two layers of cuboidal cells
-Play roles in protection, secretion, and absorption
107
Stratified columnar epithelia
-Multiple layers
-Basal cells are cuboidal and superficial layers are columnar
-Rare
108
Pseudostratified columnar epithelia
-Only a single layer
-Mucus layer traps particles and cilia remove the debris from the lungs
109
Transitional epithelia
-Multilayered
-Can stretch and expand
-Leakproof
110
Gland
a cell or group of cells that have the ability to manufacture and discharge a secretion
111
Endocrine glands
Do not have ducts or tubules and the secretions are distributed throughout the body via the bloodstream or lymphatic system
112
Exocrine glands
Secretions are released by ducts directly into local areas where they act
113
Unicellular glands
Only example is goblet cell:
Found in the respiratory tract and conjunctiva of the eye
-Secretes mucus
-Protects epithelial layer
-Entraps microorganisms and foreign debris
114
Multicellular glands
Made of secretory unit and duct
115
Simple secreting duct
main duct is unbranched
116
Compound secreting duct
main duct is branched
117
Tubular secreting duct
secretory unit forms long channel of even width
118
Acinar (alveolar) secreting duct
secretory unit forms a rounded sac
119
Serous secretion
watery, contain enzymes
120
Mucoid secretion
thick, viscous, composed of glycoproteins
121
Merocrine glands
-secretions packaged into granular units and released via exocytosis
-secretory cells remain completely intact
122
Apocrine glands
-packaged granules are stored until the apex of the cell becomes full, then the cell pinches in to and the apex is released
-cell will repair the damage and repeat the process later
123
Holocrine glands
-Granules are stored and then the entire cell is destroyed as the product is released
124
Fixed cells
remain in the connective tissue and are usually involved in the production and maintenance of the matrix
125
Transient (wandering) cells
move in and out of the connective tissue as needed and are usually involved in repair and protection
126
Types of loose connective tissue
areolar, adipose, reticular
127
Types of dense connective tissue
dense regular, dense irregular, elastic
128
Types of cartilage
Hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
129
Membranes
thin protective layers that line body cavities, separate organs, and cover surfaces
130
Mucous membranes (mucosae)
-Always found lining the organs with connections to the outside environment
-Stratified squamous or simple columnar epithelia
-May contain goblet cells
-Absorption or secretion
-Barrier between outside world and inner workings
131
Serous membranes (serosae)
-Line the walls and cover the organs in closed body cavities
-Secrete thin, watery transudate that reduces friction
132
Parietal serosae
lines the cavity wall
133
Visceral serosae
lines the outer surface of the organs
134
Ascites
fluid accumulation in the abdomen
135
Cutaneous membranes (integument)
-composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelia (epidermis)
-Epidermis is attached to a layer of dense irregular connective tissue call the dermis
136
keratin
a waxy substance that fills cells and makes the skin waterproof and keeps it from drying out
137
Synovial membranes
-composed of connective tissue with no epithelium
-smoothy, shiny, and white
-line joint cavities
-manufacture synovial fluid
138
Skeletal Muscle
-large cells
-striated
-voluntary
-attached to bone and under nervous control
-function to move bones of skeleton
139
Smooth Muscle
-small, spindle shaped cells
-single nucleus
-non-striated or smooth in appearance
-involuntary
found in the walls of the intestines, blood vessels, bladder, uterus, and stomachC
140
Cardiac Muscle
-Small cells
-Single nucleus
-Striated
-Cells branch to form a network
-Cells are connected by the intercalated disks
141
First intention healing
-sutured wounds
-no formation of granulation tissue
142
Second intention healing
granulation tissue forms to close the gap
143
Third intention healing
-larger wounds
-healing occurs more slowly
144
Visceral
pertaining to the viscera/organs
145
thoracic
thorax (chest)
146
Homeostasis
standing unchanged, state of balance or equilibrium
147
Peritoneal
Around the abdominal cavity
148
Pleural
around/lines the chest cavity
149
Ossification
occurs when the soft matrix is infiltrated with calcium and phosphate and becomes hardened
150
Functions of bone
-support
-protection
-leverage
-storage
-hematopoiesis
151
Calcitonin
helps reduce hypercalcemia- comes from the thyroid gland and causes deposition of excess calcium in the bones
152
Parathyroid hormone
helps with hypocalcemia- comes from the parathyroid glands and mobilizes calcium from the bones to circulate in the blood
153
Cancellous bone
-spongy/trabecular bone
-Composed of spicules of bone with marrow in the spaces between
-Found at end of long bones
154
Compact bone
-heavy, dense, and strong
-composed of compact cylinders of bone called haversian systems
-form the shafts of long bones and outside layer of all bones
155
Haversian canal
a central canal through a haversian system through which the blood and lymph vessels and nerves run
156
Cortex
the outside layer of compact bone
157
Periosteum
- membrane that lines the outer surface of bones
-composed of fibrous tissues and osteoblasts
-involved in bone growth and healing
158
Endosteum
-Lines the hollow interior surfaces of bones
-contains osteoblasts
159
Osteoblasts
-bone forming cells
-secrete matrix and supply minerals to harden bone
160
Osteocytes
mature osteoblasts that are now trapped in the matrix they have created
161
Osteoclasts
-resorb bone
-allow for remodeling of bone
-can remove calcium from bone when needed to raise serum calcium level
162
endochondral bone formation
bone grows into and replaces a cartilage model
163
Intramembranous bone formation
bone develops from fibrous tissue membranes- only occurs in skull bones
164
Long bones
-longer than they are wide
-most bones of the limbs
-proximal and distal epiphyses are cancellous bone
-diaphysis is compact bone
-have a growth plate
-function to support muscles and act as levers to create movement
165
Short bones
-shaped like small cubes
-core of cancellous bone covered by a thin layer of compact bone
-carpal and tarsal bones
-function as shock absorbers
166
Flat bones
-thin and flat
-two thin plates of compact bone with cancellous bone between
-skull bones, scapula, pelvic bones
-function to provide protection
167
Irregular bone
-miscellaneous
-vertebrae, some skull bones, sesamoid bones
-function mainly to support muscle attachment
168
Red bone marrow
-Hematopoietic tissue- produces the blood cells
-Makes up the majority of bone marrow in young animals
-only found in the pelvic bone, sternum, and end of some long bones in adults
169
Yellow bone marrow
-primarily adipose tissue
-the majority of bone marrow in adults
-can revert to red bone marrow if needed
170
Articular surfaces
-joint surfaces
-made of smooth compact bone
-surface is covered by articular cartilage
-the smooth surfaces help reduce friction and therefore wear in joints
171
Condyle
-a large round articular surface
172
Head
Spherical articular surface on the proximal end of a long bone
173
Facet
flat articular surface--joint movement is a rocking motion
174
Foramen
hole through which a nerve or blood vessel passes in a bone
175
Fossa
depressed area on the surface of a bone usually occupied of muscles or tendons
176
Axial skeleton
-skull
-hyoid bone
-spinal column
-ribs
-sternum
177
Occipital bone
-forms base of skull
-where spinal cord exits (foramen magnum)
-Articulates with the atlas at the occipital condyles
Injuries rare
178
Interparietal/parietal bones
-paired bones
-may fuse in older animals
-form the dorsolateral walls of the cranium
179
Temporal bones
-paired
-ventral to parietal bones and form lateral walls of cranium
-contain inner and middle ear structures
-external acoustic meatus located on lower portion
-forms temporomandibular joint with the lower jaw
180
Frontal bones
-Paired
-form forehead and a portion of the eye socket
-frontal sinus is contained within the frontal bone
-cornual process in horned cattle
181
Sphenoid
-internal bone
-forms ventral part of cranium
-pituitary fossa
-Contains sphenoidal sinus
182
Ethmoid
-internal bone
-Located just rostral to the sphenoid
-Contains the cribriform
-Contains a sinus in horses
183
Incisive bones (premaxillary bones)
-paired
-most rostral skull bones
184
Maxillary bones
-paired
-make up most of the upper jaw
-contain upper canine teeth, premolars, and molars
-contain maxillary sinuses
-form rostral part of hard palate
185
Lacrimal bones
-paired
-form the medial portion of the eye socket
-houses the lacrimal sac
186
Zygomatic bones
-form most notable portion of the eye socket by forming the zygomatic arches
-can palpate this on a live dog or cat at the widest part of the skull
187
Mandible
-lower jaw
-paired in dog, cat, and cattle with joint called mandibular symphysis
-fused in horses and swine
-shaft houses teeth
-ramus is where jaw muscles attach
188
Palatine bones
-internal
-paired
-form caudal portion of hard palate
189
Pterygoid bones
-internal
-support the lateral walls of the pharynx
190
Vomer
-single bone
-internal
-on the midline and forms part of the nasal septum
191
Tubrinates
-internal
-four of them
thin, scroll-like,the and fill most of nasal cavity
-conditions air as it passes through nasal cavity
191
Appendicular skeleton
thoracic and pelvic limbs
192
Pelvis (os coxae)
-formed by three separate bones that eventually fuse
-ilium, ischium, and pubis
-pubic symphysis joints the two halves
192
Fabellae
-small sesamoids in proximal gastrocnemius muscle tendon
193
Tibia
main weight bearing bone in lower leg
193
Fibrous joints
-bones firmly united by fibrous tissue
-immovable
-skull bones- cannon bone
194
Cartilaginous joints
-Slight rocking movement
-Mandibular symphysis, pubic symphysis, intervertebral disc
195
Synovial Joints
-Freely movable
-Stifle, shoulder, hip, AA, TMJ
-Articular surfaces, articular cartilage, joint cavity, joint capsule, ligaments, and menisci
196
Joint capsule
-outer layer of fibrous tissue
-inner synovial membrane which produces fluid
197
Flexion
decrease angle between two bones
198
Extension
Increases angle between two bones
199
Adduction
toward the median plane
200
Abduction
away from the median plane
201
Rotation
Twisting movement on its own axis
202
Circumduction
Movement of an extremity, distal end moves in a circle
203
Complete fracture
-bone broken all the way across
-often displaced
204
Green-stick fracture
-one side of bone broken, other side bent
-often seen in young animals
205
Fissure fracture
-cracks penetrate cortex
-periosteum is usually intact
206
Transverse fracture
across the bone
207
Oblique fracture
diagonal to long axis of bone
208
Spiral fracture
curved fracture line
209
Comminuted fracture
lots of little pieces
210
Avulsion fracture
fragment of bone detached
211
Physeal fracture
fracture at growth plate
212
Condylar fracture
fracture passes through condyle
213
Fracture Healing
1.) Local hemorrhage
2.) Clot formation
3.) Inflammation, edema
4.) Proliferation of cells
5.) Cartilage and bone formation
6.) Remodeling of callus
214
Clinical union
the period of time when healing has progressed to the point in strength that the fixation can be removed
215
Malunion
Fracture ends joined but malaligned
216
Delayed union
fracture ends are aligned but have failed to form a hard callus
217
Non-union
bone ends have failed to come together and no callus has formed
218
Arthritis
inflammation of a joint
219
Epaxial
Region along the dorsal vertebral column
220
Epiphysis
growth plate, end of long bone
221
Diaphysis
shaft of a long bone
222
Myositis
inflammation of a muscle
223
Intramuscular
within muscle, route of medication administration
224
Tendons
fibrous bands that connect muscle to bone at each end
225
aponeuroses
broad sheets of fibrous connective tissue that attach muscles to bones or other muscles
226
Linea alba
(white line)- most prominent aponeuroses connects ventral abdominal muscles from each side
227
Muscle origin
the muscle attachment site that moves less when a muscle contracts
228
Muscle insertion
the site that undergoes most of the movement when the muscle contracts
229
prime mover
muscle or muscle group that directly produces a desired movement
230
antagonist
muscle or muscle group that directly opposes the action of a prime mover
231
synergist
contracts at the same time as a prime mover and assists in its action
232
Fixator
stabilize joints to allow other movements to take place
233
How are skeletal muscles named?
Action, shape, location, direction of fibers, number of attachment sites or heads, site of origin and insertion
234
Cutaneous muscles
-thin, broad, and superficial
-Located in connective tissue beneath skin
-only function is to twitch the skin
235
Head and Neck muscles
-control facial expressions
-mastication
-move eyes and ears
-support the head
-flex and extend neck
*ex:// masseter and trapezius
236
Abdominal muscles
-Expulsion of feces and urine
-parturition (giving birth)
-Vomiting/regurgitation
237
Thoracic limb muscles
-front limb
-function is locomotion
238
Pelvic limb muscles
-Rear limb
-function is locomotion
239
Muscles of inspiration
diaphragm, external intercostals (draw air in)
240
Muscles of expiration
internal intercostals, abdominal muscles (push air out)
241
Cat/Dog IM injection sites
Hamstring group, epaxials, quadriceps
242
Horse/Cow IM injection sites
Hamstring group, gluteal, trapezius, pectorals (horse)
243
Sarcomere
basic contracting unit of skeletal muscle- make up myofibrils
244
endomysium
delicate connective tissue layer that surrounds each skeletal muscle cell (myofibril)
245
perimysium
tougher connective tissue layer that surrounds fascicles
246
epimysium
fibrous connective tissue layer composed of collagen fibers that surrounds groups of fascicles
247
Functions of muscular connective tissue layers
-hold components of muscle together
-connect muscle to bones or other muscle
contain blood vessels and nerve fibers
248
Aspartate transferase (AST)
-present in mitochondria
-leaks from damaged cells
-present in significant quantities in liver, muscle tissue, and rbcs
-Most common cause of increase: liver disease, muscle inflammation or necrosis, hemolysis
249
Alanine transferase (ALT)
-found in the cytosol
-leaks from damaged cells more readily than AST
-Substantial amount in liver cells, smaller amount in rbcs and striated muscle cells
-greater than 3x normal with liver disease
-2-3x normal with muscle disease
250
Creatine phosphokinase (CPK)
-Enzyme that splits the CP molecules to provide energy to phosphorylate ADP to ATP
-Leaks form damaged muscle cells
-Elevated with IM injection, persistent recumbency, laceration, heavy exercise, bruising
251
Non-inflammatory muscle disease
Strain/sprain
252
Metabolic muscle disease
Nutritional disease -vitamin E and selenium, hypocalcemia, grass tetany/grass staggers
253
Toxic muscle disease
Organophosphate poisoning
254
Inflammatory muscle disease
masticatory and extraocular muscle myositis
255
Infectious/bacteral muscle disease
black leg, wounds, iatrogenic (practitioner induced), malignant edema
