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Microbiology > Animal A&P Test 1 > Flashcards

Animal A&P Test 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Cytoplasm

A

-Inner substance of the cell, not including the nucleus
-Composed of cytosol, cytoskeleton and organelles

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2
Q

Cytosol

A

Viscous liquid with dissolved electrolytes, amino acids, sugars, and proteins (mostly enzymes)

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3
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

-Flexible fibrous structure
-Can change depending on cell’s activities
-Gives support and shape
-Allows movement
-Provides directions for metabolic activity
-Anchors organelles

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4
Q

Mitochondria

A

-Powerhouse of the cell
-Respiration occurs here
-Double membrane, site of ATP production
-Contain RNA and DNA

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5
Q

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

-Flattened membranes stacked on each other
-Membrane is single lipid bilayer
-Large surface area
-Rough ER- Ribosomes attached; modifies proteins produced by the ribosomes
-Smooth ER- functions in synthesis and storage of lipids

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6
Q

Ribosome

A

-Most numerous organelle
-Composed of two subunits and rRNA
-Manufactures proteins by assembling amino acids

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7
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

-Composed of flattened membranes
-Modification, packing, and distribution center for intracellular products and secreted products

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8
Q

Lysosome

A

-Type of specialized vesicle formed by the golgi apparatus
-Contains hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes
-Digest various organelles and nuclear components of the cell- autolysis
-Breakdown of nutrient molecules and intracellular debris

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9
Q

Autolysis

A

Process of self digestion

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10
Q

Proteasome

A

Assists with the breakdown and removal of misfolded and damaged unwanted proteins

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11
Q

Peroxisome

A

-Not produced by Golgi, reproduce by pinching in half
-Common in liver and kidney cells-detoxification
-Contain enzymes (peroxidases and catalsases)

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12
Q

Vaults

A

-Transportation pods
-Can open and close for pick up and drop off around the cell

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13
Q

Centrioles

A

-Hollow cylinders made of microtubules
-Found in pairs
-Help to organize the spindle fibers during mitosis
-Form base for cilia and flagella and are called basal bodies

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14
Q

Inclusions

A

Units of metabolic products that the cell has engulfed
Examples:// Vacuoles, vesicles, lipid droplets, pigment granules, glycogen granules

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15
Q

Vacuoles

A

Type of inclusion
Clear space in a cell surrounded by cell membrane
“a small emptiness”

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16
Q

Vesicles

A

Type of inclusion
Small sac containing fluid; membrane bound

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17
Q

Nuecleus

A

-Contains hereditary information
-Controls cell activities through protein synthesis
-Contains all the instructions and information to make over 2000 proteins
-Multinucleated or Anucleated

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18
Q

Nuclear membrane (envelope)

A

-Composed of two lipid bilayers
-The outer layer is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum
-1/10th of the membrane surface consists of nuclear pores
-Protein molecules can move into the nucleus and RNA can move out

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19
Q

Nucleoplasm

A

Gel-like substance that fills the nucleus and is similar to cytosol

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20
Q

Chromatin

A

-Composed of DNA wound around globular proteins called histones
-Arranged in loose fibers in the nucleoplasm when the cell is not dividing
-Condenses into super coiled, X-shaped structures called chromosomes during division
-Pairs of identical chromatids are linked together centrally at the centromere to form each chromosome

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21
Q

Nucleoli

A

-A cell may contain one or more
-No membrane
-Ribosomal subunits are manufactured here
-Contains DNA that codes for rRNA

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22
Q

Diffusion

A

Moving down a concentration gradientF

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23
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Passive membrane process
-Requires a carrier protein
-Larger molecules and non lipid soluble molecules
-Example:// glucose
-Rate limited by number of available carrier proteins

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24
Q

Osmosis

A

Passive membrane process
-Movement of water through a semipermeable membrane into a solution where the water concentration is lower (opposite direction of diffusion)

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25
Q

Osmotic pressure

A

the force of water moving from one side of the membrane to the other

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26
Q

Oncotic pressure

A

the difference between the osmotic pressure of blood and that of interstitial fluid

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27
Q

Isotonic

A

-ECF and ICF have the same concentration of dissolved substances

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28
Q

What happens to cell if the extracellular fluid is hypotonic?

A

Swell will swell and eventually burst

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29
Q

What happens to cell if the extracellular fluid is hypertonic?

A

Cell will shrink

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30
Q

Filtration

A

Passive membrane process
-Hydrostatic pressure (bp) pushes liquids through a membrane
-Based on a pressure gradient rather than a concentration gradient
-Occurs in the kidney where blood is filtered through special capillaries to make urine

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31
Q

Active transport

A

Active membrane process
-Requires a carrier protein
-All cells actively transport Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+
-Usually against the concentratino gradient

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32
Q

Na+/K+ antiport

A

Active membrane process
-K+ higher inside the cell and Na+ higher outside the cell
-K+ diffuses out of the cell and Na+ diffuses into the cell
-Cell must actively pump K+ into the cell and Na+ out of the cell: 2K+ ions move in and 3 Na+ ions move out
-This maintains membrane potential which is crucial to functioning of the cell

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33
Q

Endocytosis

A

Active membrane process
-Cell membrane involutes, engulfs a substance, and closes the cell membrane around it, forming a vesicle
-Phagocytosis and pinocytosis
-Example:// Macrophages

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34
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Endocytosis in which a solid substance is engulfed
*Process of eating by cells

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35
Q

Pinocytosis

A

Endocytosis in which a liquid substance is engulfed
*Process of drinking by cells

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36
Q

Macrophage

A

A type of wbc that phagocytizes debris, dead cells, and invaders

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37
Q

Exocytosis

A

Active membrane process
-Substances packaged in vesicles by the ER and Golgi body move through the cytoplasm, fuse with the cell membrane and release contents into the ECF
-Excretion or secretion
*Processing out of a cell

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38
Q

Intracellular

A

within cells

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39
Q

Extracellular

A

outside of cells

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40
Q

Inorganic chemistry

A

Structure, synthesis, and bonding of any material in which metals and metalloid elements are of primary interest

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41
Q

Intercellular

A

between cells

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42
Q

Organic chemistry

A

Study of compounds containing carbon; ALL living things contain carbon

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43
Q

Biochemistry

A

Study of living systems from a chemical viewpoint

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44
Q

Covalent bonding

A

Electron sharing!
-Electrons from one atom are attracted to another atom and vice versa
-The electron shells will eventually overlap and the electrons are shared

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45
Q

Ionic bonding

A

Electron transfer!
-One atom transfers an electron to another atom
-Basis of this bond is the attraction between the cation and the anion

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46
Q

Hydrogen bonding

A

Electrostatic attraction!
-A hydrogen atom is bonded to a small, highly electronegative element
-Polarity of molecules is a facter
-H2O molecules

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47
Q

Organic compounds

A

Contain hydrocarbon groups
-Carbohydrates
-Lipids
-Proteins
-Nucleic acids

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48
Q

Inorganic compounds

A

Do not contain hydrocarbon groups
-water
-salts
-acids
-bases

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49
Q

Cranial

A

pertaining to the head

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50
Q

Caudal

A

pertaining to the tail

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51
Q

Dorsal

A

pertaining to the back

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52
Q

Ventral

A

pertaining to the belly

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53
Q

Lateral

A

pertaining to the side

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54
Q

Medial

A

pertaining to the middle

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55
Q

Palmar

A

pertaining to the sole of the forefeet

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56
Q

Plantar

A

pertaining to the sole of the hindfeet

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57
Q

Mitosis

A

a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells with identical genetic material of the original cell each with the potential to divide again and pass on an identical copy of its DNA

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58
Q

Stages of Mitosis

A

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

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59
Q

Prophase

A

-Chromatin condenses into chromosomes
-Cytoskeleton disassembled
-Centrioles begin to migrate to the poles and the mitotic spindle is formed
-Nuclear membrane disintegrates

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60
Q

Metaphase

A

-Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell along the mitotic spindle
-The centromere of each chromosome is attached to a single spindle fiber

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61
Q

Anaphase

A

-Centromeres split
-Each chromatid becomes its own chromosome and the twin chromosomes are pulled away from each other and toward the centrioles
-Errors here are devastating

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62
Q

Telophase

A

-Chromosomes reach poles and begin to return to chromatin form
-Nuclear membrane forms, nucleoli appears
-Spindle microtubules disassemble
-Cell cleavage

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63
Q

Cytokinesis

A

The conclusion of mitosis in which the cytoplasm divides

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64
Q

Replication

A

synthesis of an exact copy of a cell’s DNA to be passed along to the daughter cell when the cell divides

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65
Q

Membrane potential

A

defined as voltage or electrical potential caused by the separation of oppositely charged particles

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66
Q

Resting membrane potential

A

The charge difference between the inside and outside of a cell

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67
Q

Flagella

A

Found singly and are longer; responsible for motility of some cells

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68
Q

Cilia

A

occur in large numbers and are shorter; move synchronously and propel fluids across the cell surface

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69
Q

Glycocalyx

A

the sugar coating that covers the surface of some cells
-Provides cell-to-cell adhesion
-acts as a biological marker for recognition between cells and antibodies and cells and viruses

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70
Q

Protein synthesis

A

-Instructions are contained in the DNA in the nucleus of the cell

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71
Q

Gene

A

a subunit of the DNA molecule that contains all the information needed to make one peptide chain

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72
Q

Genetic code

A

the sequence of nitrogenous base pairs that code for amino acids; the genetic code is said to be redundant, meaning that more than one codon codes for the same amino acid

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73
Q

Codon

A

genetic code of a single amino acid expressed as three bases

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74
Q

Promotors

A

Codons that signal start here

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75
Q

Terminators

A

Codons that signal stop here

76
Q

Translation

A

the process of manufacturing a new protein using the information on the mRNA molecule

77
Q

Transcription

A

the formation of mRNA in the nucleus

78
Q

Causes of mutation

A

-spontaneous
-viruses
-ionizing radiation
-chemicals
-fetal mutagens- chemotherapeutic agents, inhaled anesthetics

79
Q

Enzymes

A

-proteins that speed up chemical reactions in the body
-Enzymes react with specific substrate to produce a product

80
Q

Metabolism

A

-a multi-enzymatic process
-a product formed by one reaction becomes the substrate for the next
-some metabolic pathways will use up to 2- enzyme driven steps

81
Q

Activation energy

A

energy used to start the chemical reaction

82
Q

Anemia

A

a condition in where there is decreased oxygen carrying capacity of the blood

83
Q

Atom

A

smallest unit of an element that retains the unique properties of that element

84
Q

Atomic weight

A

Sum of the atomic mass of the protons and neutrons

85
Q

Atomic number

A

number of protons in that atom

86
Q

Ions

A

positive or negatively charged atoms

87
Q

Isotopes

A

atoms that contain a different number of neutrons than normal

88
Q

Electron shell

A

area around the nucleus where the electrons are most likely to be found

89
Q

Molecule

A

smallest particle of a substance composed of two or more atoms that retains the properties of the substance

90
Q

Compound

A

A substance made up of two or more elements

91
Q

Carbohydrates

A

-Provide energy
-Store energy
-Building of cellular structures
-Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Examples: table starch, starch, and cellulose

92
Q

Lipids

A

-Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
-Used in the body for energy
-Stored in fat tissue for future use
-Chemical messengers: hormones
- Classes: neutral fats, phospholipids, steroids, eicosanoids

93
Q

Saturated fatty acids

A

all bonds in the hydrocarbon chain are single bonds
-found in animal fats (butter, lard)

94
Q

Unsaturated fatty acid

A

Some double bonds between carbon and hydrogen atoms
-plant origin (corn, olive oil)

95
Q

Proteins

A

-most common type of organic compound found in the body
-functions:
Cell structures
Structure of body tissues
Control chemical reactions
Regulate growth
Defend against invaders
Transport of ions/molecules
-Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
-Amino acids are the building blocks
-Shape determines function

96
Q

Nucleic acids

A

DNA and RNA

97
Q

ATP

A

adenosine triphosphate
-stores energy in the cell
-created through cellular respiration

98
Q

Tissues

A

-cells of similar type and function that are clustered into layers, sheets, or groups
-the cells composing a tissue or differentiated and have lost the ability to survive independently

99
Q

Tight junctions

A

-Fusion of outer membranes of adjoining cells
-No matrix filled space between the cells at the site of fusion

100
Q

Desmosomes

A

-A strong, welded plaque that connects plasma membranes of adjacent cells
-Filaments interlock with one another and also extend into the cytoplasm as anchors

101
Q

Gap Junctions

A

-Connexons extend from the cytoplasm of one cell to the cytoplasm of the other
-Allow the exchange and passage of nucleotides, AAs, sugar, ions and other nutrients

102
Q

Simple squamous epithelia

A

-Protected areas of the body
-Often involved in the passage of gas or liquid
-Important in reducing friction of the body

103
Q

Simple cuboidal epithelia

A

-Single layer of cubical cells
-Protected regions of body
-Involved in secretion and absorption

104
Q

Simple columnar epithelia

A

-Elongated and closely packed together
-Thicker and more protective
-Associated with absorption and secretion
-Can be ciliated

105
Q

Stratified squamous epithelia

A

-Multiple layers of flattened cells
-Able to withstand mechanical and chemical stresses and is a protective layer
-Outer layers continually worn away and replaced

106
Q

Stratified cuboidal epithelia

A

-Two layers of cuboidal cells
-Play roles in protection, secretion, and absorption

107
Q

Stratified columnar epithelia

A

-Multiple layers
-Basal cells are cuboidal and superficial layers are columnar
-Rare

108
Q

Pseudostratified columnar epithelia

A

-Only a single layer
-Mucus layer traps particles and cilia remove the debris from the lungs

109
Q

Transitional epithelia

A

-Multilayered
-Can stretch and expand
-Leakproof

110
Q

Gland

A

a cell or group of cells that have the ability to manufacture and discharge a secretion

111
Q

Endocrine glands

A

Do not have ducts or tubules and the secretions are distributed throughout the body via the bloodstream or lymphatic system

112
Q

Exocrine glands

A

Secretions are released by ducts directly into local areas where they act

113
Q

Unicellular glands

A

Only example is goblet cell:
Found in the respiratory tract and conjunctiva of the eye
-Secretes mucus
-Protects epithelial layer
-Entraps microorganisms and foreign debris

114
Q

Multicellular glands

A

Made of secretory unit and duct

115
Q

Simple secreting duct

A

main duct is unbranched

116
Q

Compound secreting duct

A

main duct is branched

117
Q

Tubular secreting duct

A

secretory unit forms long channel of even width

118
Q

Acinar (alveolar) secreting duct

A

secretory unit forms a rounded sac

119
Q

Serous secretion

A

watery, contain enzymes

120
Q

Mucoid secretion

A

thick, viscous, composed of glycoproteins

121
Q

Merocrine glands

A

-secretions packaged into granular units and released via exocytosis
-secretory cells remain completely intact

122
Q

Apocrine glands

A

-packaged granules are stored until the apex of the cell becomes full, then the cell pinches in to and the apex is released
-cell will repair the damage and repeat the process later

123
Q

Holocrine glands

A

-Granules are stored and then the entire cell is destroyed as the product is released

124
Q

Fixed cells

A

remain in the connective tissue and are usually involved in the production and maintenance of the matrix

125
Q

Transient (wandering) cells

A

move in and out of the connective tissue as needed and are usually involved in repair and protection

126
Q

Types of loose connective tissue

A

areolar, adipose, reticular

127
Q

Types of dense connective tissue

A

dense regular, dense irregular, elastic

128
Q

Types of cartilage

A

Hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage

129
Q

Membranes

A

thin protective layers that line body cavities, separate organs, and cover surfaces

130
Q

Mucous membranes (mucosae)

A

-Always found lining the organs with connections to the outside environment
-Stratified squamous or simple columnar epithelia
-May contain goblet cells
-Absorption or secretion
-Barrier between outside world and inner workings

131
Q

Serous membranes (serosae)

A

-Line the walls and cover the organs in closed body cavities
-Secrete thin, watery transudate that reduces friction

132
Q

Parietal serosae

A

lines the cavity wall

133
Q

Visceral serosae

A

lines the outer surface of the organs

134
Q

Ascites

A

fluid accumulation in the abdomen

135
Q

Cutaneous membranes (integument)

A

-composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelia (epidermis)
-Epidermis is attached to a layer of dense irregular connective tissue call the dermis

136
Q

keratin

A

a waxy substance that fills cells and makes the skin waterproof and keeps it from drying out

137
Q

Synovial membranes

A

-composed of connective tissue with no epithelium
-smoothy, shiny, and white
-line joint cavities
-manufacture synovial fluid

138
Q

Skeletal Muscle

A

-large cells
-striated
-voluntary
-attached to bone and under nervous control

139
Q

Smooth Muscle

A

-small, spindle shaped cells
-single nucleus
-non-striated or smooth in appearance
-involuntary
found in the walls of the intestines, blood vessels, bladder, uterus, and stomachC

140
Q

Cardiac Muscle

A

-Small cells
-Single nucleus
-Striated
-Cells branch to form a network
-Cells are connected by the intercalated disks

141
Q

First intention healing

A

-sutured wounds
-no formation of granulation tissue

142
Q

Second intention healing

A

granulation tissue forms to close the gap

143
Q

Third intention healing

A

-larger wounds
-healing occurs more slowly

144
Q

Visceral

A

pertaining to the viscera/organs

145
Q

thoracic

A

thorax (chest)

146
Q

Homeostasis

A

standing unchanged, state of balance or equilibrium

147
Q

Peritoneal

A

Around the abdominal cavity

148
Q

Pleural

A

around/lines the chest cavity

149
Q

Ossification

A

occurs when the soft matrix is infiltrated with calcium and phosphate and becomes hardened

150
Q

Functions of bone

A

-support
-protection
-leverage
-storage
-hematopoiesis

151
Q

Calcitonin

A

helps reduce hypercalcemia- comes from the thyroid gland and causes deposition of excess calcium in the bones

152
Q

Parathyroid hormone

A

helps with hypocalcemia- comes from the parathyroid glands and mobilizes calcium from the bones to circulate in the blood

153
Q

Cancellous bone

A

-spongy/trabecular bone
-Composed of spicules of bone with marrow in the spaces between
-Found at end of long bones

154
Q

Compact bone

A

-heavy, dense, and strong
-composed of compact cylinders of bone called haversian systems
-form the shafts of long bones and outside layer of all bones

155
Q

Haversian canal

A

a central canal through a haversian system through which the blood and lymph vessels and nerves run

156
Q

Cortex

A

the outside layer of compact bone

157
Q

Periosteum

A
  • membrane that lines the outer surface of bones
    -composed of fibrous tissues and osteoblasts
    -involved in bone growth and healing
158
Q

Endosteum

A

-Lines the hollow interior surfaces of bones
-contains osteoblasts

159
Q

Osteoblasts

A

-bone forming cells
-secrete matrix and supply minerals to harden bone

160
Q

Osteocytes

A

mature osteoblasts that are now trapped in the matrix they have created

161
Q

Osteoclasts

A

-resorb bone
-allow for remodeling of bone
-can remove calcium from bone when needed to raise serum calcium level

162
Q

endochondral bone formation

A

bone grows into and replaces a cartilage model

163
Q

Intramembranous bone formation

A

bone develops from fibrous tissue membranes- only occurs in skull bones

164
Q

Long bones

A

-longer than they are wide
-most bones of the limbs
-proximal and distal epiphyses are cancellous bone
-diaphysis is compact bone
-have a growth plate
-function to support muscles and act as levers to create movement

165
Q

Short bones

A

-shaped like small cubes
-core of cancellous bone covered by a thin layer of compact bone
-carpal and tarsal bones
-function as shock absorbers

166
Q

Flat bones

A

-thin and flat
-two thin plates of compact bone with cancellous bone between
-skull bones, scapula, pelvic bones
-function to provide protection

167
Q

Irregular bone

A

-miscellaneous
-vertebrae, some skull bones, sesamoid bones
-function mainly to support muscle attachment

168
Q

Red bone marrow

A

-Hematopoietic tissue- produces the blood cells
-Makes up the majority of bone marrow in young animals
-only found in the pelvic bone, sternum, and end of some long bones in adults

169
Q

Yellow bone marrow

A

-primarily adipose tissue
-the majority of bone marrow in adults
-can revert to red bone marrow if needed

170
Q

Articular surfaces

A

-joint surfaces
-made of smooth compact bone
-surface is covered by articular cartilage
-the smooth surfaces help reduce friction and therefore wear in joints

171
Q

Condyle

A

-a large round articular surface

172
Q

Head

A

Spherical articular surface on the proximal end of a long bone

173
Q

Facet

A

flat articular surface–joint movement is a rocking motion

174
Q

Foramen

A

hole through which a nerve or blood vessel passes in a bone

175
Q

Fossa

A

depressed area on the surface of a bone usually occupied of muscles or tendons

176
Q

Axial skeleton

A

-skull
-hyoid bone
-spinal column
-ribs
-sternum

177
Q

Occipital bone

A

-forms base of skull
-where spinal cord exits (foramen magnum)
-Articulates with the atlas at the occipital condyles
Injuries rare

178
Q

Interparietal/parietal bones

A

-paired bones
-may fuse in older animals
-form the dorsolateral walls of the cranium

179
Q

Temporal bones

A

-paired
-ventral to parietal bones and form lateral walls of cranium
-contain inner and middle ear structures
-external acoustic meatus located on lower portion
-forms temporomandibular joint with the lower jaw

180
Q

Frontal bones

A

-Paired
-form forehead and a portion of the eye socket
-frontal sinus is contained within the frontal bone
-cornual process in horned cattle

181
Q

Sphenoid

A

-internal bone
-forms ventral part of cranium
-pituitary fossa
-Contains sphenoidal sinus

182
Q

Ethmoid

A

-internal bone
-Located just rostral to the sphenoid
-Contains the cribriform
-Contains a sinus in horses

183
Q

Incisive bones (premaxillary bones)

A

-paired
-most rostral skull bones

184
Q

Maxillary bones

A

-paired
-make up most of the upper jaw
-contain upper canine teeth, premolars, and molars
-contain maxillary sinuses
-form rostral part of hard palate

185
Q

Lacrimal bones

A

-paired
-form the medial portion of the eye socket
-houses the lacrimal sac

186
Q
A

Microbiology (2 decks)

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