Anemia Flashcards
Anemias
- Anemias are abnormalities in the concentration of hemoglobin, and subsequent alterations in erythrocytes.
- They can be caused by specific deficits in dietary intake or loss of essential nutrients important to the synthesis of hemoglobin and red blood cells.
Iron and Hemoglobin
- Each of the four globin chains in adult hemoglobin contain a heme prosthetic group with a single atom of iron that needs to be maintained in the reduced ferrous (Fe+2) state.
- In the Fe+2 state, O2 can be bound to each of the four heme groups present in hemoglobin.
- Dietary lack of or excessive loss of iron adversely affects the function of hemoglobin.
Dietary Free Iron
- Dietary free iron is absorbed primarily in the proximal small intestine and reduced to Fe+2 and the oxidized to Fe+3 (ferric state) in the blood.
- Ferric iron is rapidly complexed with circulating transferrin (TF) for distribution to tissues. The transferrin-iron complex is taken into cells by the transferrin receptor.
- Once in red blood cells, the majority of iron is incorporated into the heme structure. Iron in excess of what is needed for synthesis is stored in tissues, and particularly in liver (hepatocytes) in a complex with ferritin.
Iron Deficiency Anemia - Hemoglobin Lab Values
- Normal Hb in females is 12-16 g/dL and in males is 14-18 g/dL. Anemia is defined as a Hb less than normal (hypochromia) and is usually accompanied by lower hematocrit (<31% = deficiency).
- Because Fe deficiency causes inadequate hemoglobin production, red cells contain less Hb than normal resulting in decreased red cell size (microcytosis).
- Often red cells may be of different sizes (anisocytosis) and shapes (poikilocytosis). Thus, the common term for iron deficiency anemia is hypochromic, microcytic anemia.
MCV Calculation
MCV = HCT x10/RBC count (106 /uL)
*HCT measures volume
MCH Calculation
MCH = Hb x 10/ RBC count (106 /uL)
Hemoglobin
•amount of hemoglobin in the blood
Hematocrit
•The hematocrit is the proportion, by volume, of the blood that consists of red blood cells.
MCV
•Mean corpuscular volume (MCV) is the average volume of red cells.
MCH
•MCH stands for “mean corpuscular hemoglobin.” An MCH value refers to the average quantity of hemoglobin present in a single red blood cell.
Blood
- 45% RBC (erythrocytes)
- 54.3% plasma
- composed of mostly water (90% by volume) plus dissolved proteins, glucose, clotting factors, mineral ions, hormones and carbon dioxide.
- 0.7% WBC (leukocytes) and platelets (thrombocytes)
Progression of Fe Deficiency
- Iron stores drop. Because iron is stored as ferritin, low plasma ferritin is an initial index of depleted iron storage.
- After iron stores are depleted, iron cannot be supplied to the plasma so that plasma iron begins to decrease.
- With a decrease in plasma iron, compensation occurs by increasing the amount of transferrin, however with less iron and more transferrin the extent of saturation decreases.
- Hemoglobin synthesis then begins to decrease because of lower delivery of iron to bone marrow. Small pale red cells are produced.
- Finally, anemia due to reduced red cell synthesis leads to decreased oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. Fatigue, shortness of breath, headaches and difficulty concentrating become clinical symptoms.
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)
- Humans cannot synthesize cobalamin and thus depend on dietary sources.
- Its absorption and activation is complex.
-Difficulties in this process cause medical problems.
•There are two “active” forms of B12: adenosylB12 (mitochondrial form) and methyl B12 (cytoplasmic form).
-However, dietary and synthetic (vitamin supplements) is in neither of these forms and instead is taken as either hydroxo- or cyano B12. These dietary forms must be absorbed and then undergo conversion to the “active” forms.
- Dietary B12 enters the stomach where it binds to intrinsic factor (IF), which is manufactured and secreted by the stomach parietal cells.
- The IF/B12 complex then passes through the length of the duodenum and jejunum.
- The terminal ileum contains receptors for the complex on the surface of the ileal mucosa.
- The complex is absorbed, the cobalamin released, and bound to transcobalamin II, which enters the blood stream.
- The TCII/B12 complex is taken up by receptors on the surfaces of cells.
- The B12 enters the cytoplasm and then mitochondria.
- In B12 metabolism note the important link between methyl-B12 and folate metabolism
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) Deficiency
- Most cases of B12 deficiency result from malabsorption rather than insufficient intake.
- The most common cause for malabsorption is lack of intrinsic factor.
- Lack of IF may be due either to autoimmune destruction of the parietal cells or the production of antibodies against IF.
- In either case, absorption of B12 is impaired causing pernicious anemia (PA), a type of megaloblastic anemia.
- The time period for B12 deficiency to appear is lengthy, hence the slow development of anemia inherent in the word pernicious.
- Failure to absorb the B12/IF complex in the terminal ileum is another cause of pernicious anemia.
- Autoimmune disorders such as Crohn’s disease may reduce absorption.
- Surgical removal of the terminal ileum results in failure of absorption.
•After absorption of B12, it may be subjected to a variety of rare defects that have been described.
- Genetic mutations resulting in absence of transcobalamin II cause macrocytic anemia in infancy.
- Once absorbed in cells, genetic mutations in the activating enzymes cause combined or isolated defects in production of either methyl- or adenosyl B12.
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) Deficiency -Methylcobalamin
•It is likely, that alterations in production of sufficient methyl cobalamin cause many of the clinical signs and symptoms of B12 deficiency.
- This is because of the very important transfer of single carbon methyl groups.
- The methyl group from S-adenosylmethionine is used in a large number of other synthetic reactions including the formation of myelin, and homocysteine can receive a methyl group from methyl cobalamin to become methionine again.
- The source of the methyl group for methyl cobalamin is methyltetrahydrofolate, which is generated from folate intermediates that get their methyl groups from a variety of sources. Thus, methyl groups are being transferred to and from a variety of sources.
- If B12 is deficient, then there is accumulation of methyltetrahydrofolate causing the methyl groups to become “trapped”. This trap may affect a variety of pathways including DNA synthesis.