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Equine Level 3 > Anatomy & Physiology > Flashcards

Anatomy & Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

Look at a&p file on laptop for more info

A

Look at a&p file on laptop for more info

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2
Q

Bone composed of?

A

Bone composed of?

.Composed mainly of inorganic calcium salts, mainly calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate. The organic matter of bone is a collagen-like substance called ossein.

.Is covered by a membrane called the periosteum.

.Bones in the horse are 205.

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3
Q

Bone composed of?

A

Bone composed of?

.Composed mainly of inorganic calcium salts, mainly calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate. The organic matter of bone is a collagen-like substance called ossein.

.Short bones and the end of long bones, produce red & white blood corpuscles.

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4
Q

Short bones?

A

Short bones?

.Short bones and the end of long bones, produce red & white blood corpuscles.

.Short bones - have red bone marrow in their cavities.

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5
Q

Long bones?

A

Long bones?

.Short bones and the end of long bones, produce red & white blood corpuscles.

Long bones - the cavities are filled by yellow bone marrow and facilitate the storage of fat.

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6
Q

Carpal bones?

A

Carpal bones?

.Are the knee bones

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7
Q

Tarsal bones?

A

Tarsal bones?

.Are the hock

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8
Q

Tendons?

A

Tendons?

.Are attached to bone.

.Is a fibrous cord of connective tissue continuous with the fibres of a muscle, attaching the muscle to bone, cartilage or other muscle.

.Once damaged will always be weaker.

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9
Q

Mandible?

A

Mandible?

.Lower jaw bone

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10
Q

Clavicle?

A

Clavicle?

.There is no clavicle in the horse.

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11
Q

Collateral ligaments?

A

Collateral ligaments?

.Attach bone to bone.

.Differ to tendons in that the fibrils are arranged in a nearly parallel alignment (whereas tendon fibrils are parallel).

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12
Q

Metacarpal (cannon bone & Splint bones)?

A

Metacarpal (cannon bone & Splint bones)?

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13
Q

Forelimbs?

A

Forelimbs?

.Supports two thirds of the body weight.

.Have no bony attachment just a series of muscles (thoracic sling).

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14
Q

Hoof?

A

Hoof?

.Grows 6mm per month & contains 25% water.

.Hoof growth is slower in a dry environment.

.Is attached to pedal bone by laminae .

.Hoof arteries - metacarpal artery front limbs & hind limbs metatarsal artery.

.Hoof veins - solar venous plexus, laminal venous plexus and coronary venous plexus.

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15
Q

Lack of movement?

A

Lack of movement?

.Will cause reduced circulation and may lead to fluid-filled limbs & warmth in the area.

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16
Q

Joints?

A

Joints?

.Occur where two or more bones meet.

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17
Q

Synovial fluid?

A

Synovial fluid?

.Secreted by the synovial membrane. This membrane lines the non-articular part of a synovial joint, and all tendon sheaths.

.Is a clear, pale yellow, viscous, slightly alkaline fluid containing few cells.

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18
Q

Abductor muscles?

A

Abductor muscles?

.Carry the limb away from the mid-line of the body.

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19
Q

Adductor muscles?

A

Adductor muscles?

.Carry the limb towards the mid-line.

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20
Q

Muscle contraction?

A

Muscle contraction?

.Needs energy supply. Muscle tissue contain mitochondria which store the carbohydrate energy-giving substance glycogen, which is broken down to release energy through a chemical reaction caused by enzymes.

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21
Q

Leg muscles?

A

Leg muscles?

.Are (pennate muscles) and attach to a long tendon.

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22
Q

Intercostal muscles?

A

Intercostal muscles?

.Expand and contract the rib cage for breathing with help from the diaphragm.

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23
Q

Stay apparatus?

A

Stay apparatus?

.Horse is able to rest in the standing position for long periods of time with minimal fatigue as a result of the combined action of many muscles, tendons and ligaments. Together these are termed the stay apparatus.

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24
Q

The fetlock?

A

The fetlock?

.Prevents the horse from falling

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25
Q

Synovial?

A

Synovial?

.Lubricates the tendon

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26
Q

Types of joint?

A

Types of joint?

.Simple joints - two articulation surfaces.

.Composed joint - three or more articulation surfaces.

.Complex joint - two or more articulation surfaces and an articular disc or meniscus.

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27
Q

Blood?

A

Blood?

.Travels through arteries as it is pumped away from the heart and through veins on its return journey.

.Blood carries - oxygen, co2, nutrients, water, hormones, antibodies, heat, waste.

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28
Q

Blood contains?

A

Blood contains?

.Red & white cells, plasma, platelets.

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29
Q

Plasma?

A

Plasma?

.Composed of serum and fibrinogen, in which all of the other components of blood are suspended.

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30
Q

Serum?

A

Serum?

.Is 90% water and contains dissolved organic minerals, blood proteins (albumin & globulins, antibodies, most of which are globulins), urea, hormones, enzymes & co2.

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31
Q

Fibrinogen?

A

Fibrinogen?

.Is the blood clotting protein.

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32
Q

Blood sample?

A

Blood sample?

.To get plasma prevent the sample from clotting.

.To get serum leave to clot.

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33
Q

Oxygen & co2?

A

Oxygen & co2?

.Oxygenated blood - exits the left ventricle by the aorta.

.Deoxygenated blood - enters the heart at the right atrium by the Vena Cava.

.Carried in haemoglobin in red blood cells and everything else is carried in plasma i.e hormones, nutrients.

.Haemoglobin - binds oxygen to co2.

34
Q

Red blood cells?

A

Red blood cells?

.Stored in spleen & made in bone marrow.

35
Q

Neutrophils (polymorphs)?

A

Neutrophils (polymorphs)?

.Defence against bacterial infection. Once full it dies, resulting in pus.

36
Q

Basophils?

A

Basophils?

.Control inflammation by releasing histamine.

37
Q

Lymphocytes?

A

Lymphocytes?

.Produce antibodies specific to invading viral pathogens in order to render them harmless.

38
Q

Platelets (thrombocytes)?

A

Platelets (thrombocytes)?

.Help the clotting process

39
Q

Veins?

A

Veins?

.Have no pulses

40
Q

Heart?

A

Heart?

.Is between the lungs and encased in a sac known as the pericardium which contains a small amount of Lubricating fluid.

.Heart consists of three layers - the epicardium, endocardium and myocardium.

.Has four chambers - two upper chambers (atria). Two lower (ventricle s)

41
Q

Atria?

A

Atria?

.Receive blood from the large veins, the ventricles pump the blood out trough the large arteries.

42
Q

Cardiac cycle?

A

Cardiac cycle?

.Blood enters the left and right atria at the same time. Once full, the atria contract and the valves dividing the atria and ventricles open as the blood is pushed through into the relaxed ventricles.

.Tricuspid valve - separates the right atrium & ventricle.

.Bicuspid (mitral valve) - separates the left atrium & ventricle.

.Diastolic action - heart muscle relaxing before & during filling.

.Systolic action - contraction of heart muscle as it empties.

HR - 25 - 42 BPM at rest

.Sino-atrial (SA) node - pacemaker

.Heartbeat - powers the pulmonary circulation and the systemic circulation of blood through the body.

43
Q

Pulmonary circulation?

A

Pulmonary circulation?

.Deoxygenated blood arrives via the Vena Cava in the right atrium and then moves down the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle from where it is pumped through the pulmonary artery into the lungs to be expelled and during this process the alveoli reoxygenates the blood to be sent back through the pulmonary vein to the left atrium.

44
Q

Hepatic portal vein?

A

Hepatic portal vein?

.Blood from the intestines is collected here and sent to the liver to be filtered.

.Hepatic vein - once filtered by the liver is sent through the hepatic vein to the Vena Cava.

45
Q

Renal artery?

A

Renal artery?

.Supplies blood to the kidneys.

46
Q

Circulation of blood?

A

Circulation of blood?

.Start from the left atrium where reoxygenated blood is sent to the left ventricle through the bicuspid valve. Here it is pumped out under great pressure through the aorta artery to the body tissues. Here the blood collects the deoxygenated blood from the tissues and transports this through veins to the Vena Cava vein and into the right atrium then to the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve, then sends the deoxygenated blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery. Once in the lungs the co2 gets expelled and the alveoli collects the oxygen to be sent through the pulmonary vein to the left atrium and then the left ventricle to be transported through the aorta artery to the body’s tissues i.e liver, stomach & intestines, kidneys, head & neck, limbs.

47
Q

Lymphatic system function?

A

Lymphatic system function?

.Help drain away excess tissue fluid from the tissues and return it to the blood.

.To absorb and transport fats, to filter out bacteria & toxins in lymph nodes, to return proteins to circulation.

.Tissue fluid is plasma that leaks out of the blood carrying capillaries and bathes all of the tissue cells.

.Tissue fluid supplies oxygen and nutrients to all cells and maintains the correct temperature and osmotic pressure within cells.

.Once the tissue fluid has bathed the cells and given up its oxygen & nutrients, it drains into the lymphatic capillaries and is then lymph.

.Waste products - bacteria, debris & dead cells are transported through the lymphatic system before being returned to the bloodstream prior to excretion.

.Relies on muscular activity to ensure the free flow of lymph.

.In times of inactivity horses legs may fill with fluid.

48
Q

Lymph?

A

Lymph?

.Is a transparent, yellow coloured fluid, it is basically plasma but with a lower proportion of nutrients (protein & glucose) and oxygen.

49
Q

Lymphatic capillaries?

A

Lymphatic capillaries?

.Carry lymph (used tissue fluid) and link up to larger lymph vessels to carry lymph to the subclavien veins.

50
Q

Lymph vessels?

A

Lymph vessels?

.Directs the lymph towards a vein

51
Q

Lymph nodes?

A

Lymph nodes?

.Found along lymph vessels and act as filters against bacteria with help from wbc (macrophages).

.Produce lymphocytes and antibodies to fight infection. These nodes are grouped together to form lymph glands.

52
Q

Respiratory system functions?

A

Respiratory system functions?

. Functions - acid/base regulation i.e co2, humidification and warming of air, thermoregulation, defence against dust ect, supply oxygen, transfer oxygen into bloodstream.

53
Q

Upper respiratory tract?

A

Upper respiratory tract?

.Airways i.e nostrils

54
Q

Lower respiratory tract?

A

Lower respiratory tract?

.Bronchi & lungs

55
Q

Swallowing?

A

Swallowing?

.During swallowing the soft palate lifts up to allow the food to reach the oesophagus and the epiglottis covers the larynx so food does not enter the trachea/ larynx.

56
Q

Larynx?

A

Larynx?

.Vocal cords when vibrated by the forced passage of air, create sounds.

57
Q

Trachea?

A

Trachea?

.Enters the thoracic cavity at the thoracic inlet.

.Lined by millions of cilia to remove mucous.

58
Q

Bronchi?

A

Bronchi?

.Two of them attached to each lung at the hilus and continue to divide, forming a bronchial tree.

59
Q

Bronchioles?

A

Bronchioles?

.Terminate at alveoli and alveolar sacs are within the alveoli connected by alveolar ducts.

60
Q

Alveolus?

A

Alveolus?

.Each is encased by a network of capillaries of the pulmonary artery and gaseous exchange occurs.

.As blood flows past an alveolus oxygen diffuses into it and carbon dioxide out of the blood and into the alveolus.

Alveoli;

  • Surfactant - fluid which helps to prevent the alveoli from collapsing.
  • The deoxygenated blood in the capillaries is very close to the surface of the alveoli. The co2 within this blood diffuses into the air in the alveoli and is expelled when breathing out.
  • Oxygen dissuses from the air into the alveoli, through the thin capillary walls and combines with the haemoglobin in the blood.
61
Q

Pleura?

A

Pleura?

.Covers the outer surface of the lung tissue and the thoracic cavity.

62
Q

Emphysema?

A

Emphysema?

.Broken wind

63
Q

Nervous & sensory system?

A

Nervous & sensory system?

64
Q

Nervous system?

A

Nervous system?

.Neurons - millions of nerve cells that transmit messages (impulses).

.Neuron - cell body, axon and dendrites.

.Brain cells - consume 20% of all the oxygen extracted from the blood. Without oxygen the brain cells become damaged and die.

.Central nervous system - brain & spinal cord.

.Peripheral - connected to CNS. The sensory organs & nerve tissue.

65
Q

The brain?

A

The brain?

.Has no capacity for cell regeneration.

66
Q

Spinal cord?

A

Spinal cord?

.Bundles of nerve fibres carrying messages to and from the brain i.e provides a link between the brain and PNS.

67
Q

CNS?

A

CNS?

.Encased in a tough protective membrane called the meninges and are cushioned by cerebrospinal fluid.

.Cerebrospinal fluid - assists in the supply of nutrients and oxygen.

68
Q

Nerve cell types?

A

Nerve cell types?

.Sensory neurons - transmit impulses from receptors to the CNS i.e receptors in the skin.

.Motor neurons - carrying impulses from the CNS to muscles or glands i.e to move away from fire when burnt.

.Intermediate neurons - connect sensory and motor neurons.

69
Q

Nerve cell?

A

Nerve cell?

.Dendrites -Receive stimuli

.Axons - send stimuli and filled with axoplasm. Axon-enclosed within a fatty myelin sheath to protect the nerve cell, insulate the axon and speed up the nervous responses.

.Synapses - connects nerve cells together to transmit messages. Junctions between the terminal dendrites of one neuron and the cell body of another.

. Receptors - are sensory nerve.

.When the nerve is stimulated, the message is passed along the axon and is transmitted to other nerve cells via synapses.

70
Q

Sight?

A

Sight?

.Eyes - set in bony cavities called the orbits.

.Eyelid - protection from dust & dirt.

.Tears - wash away foreign particles & prevent bacterial proliferation.

.Sclera - white of the eye that forms the outer coating.

.Cornea - front of the sclera and transparent to allow entry of light.

.Choroid - inner lining of eye and nourishes the retina, contains the iris.

.Iris - regulates the amount of light that reaches the inner part of the eye.

.Pupil - circular opening in the iris. Bright light it constricts and poor light it dilates.

.Lens - behind iris.

.Optic nerve - back of the eye, passes messages to brain.

.Retina - back of eyeball contains sensitive photoreceptor cells known as rods and cones.

.Rods & cones - receive light and cover surface of retina. Rods are concerned mainly with vision at night or in darkness.

71
Q

Hearing?

A

Hearing?

.Can hear higher and softer tones than humans.

.Inner ear - involved with the horse’s sense of balance. Houses the cochlea and semi-circular canals.

.External ear of pinna - sixteen muscles control the movement of the ear.

.Middle ear - transmit the vibrations of the eardrum to the oval window (a membrane that closes off the inner ear).

.Cochlea - receives vibrations passed through the oval window and converts these to nerve impulses and then sent to the brain.

.Semi-circular canals - todo with balance.

.Auditory ossicles - bones are the malleus, incus and stirrup.

72
Q

Smell (olfaction)?

A

Smell (olfaction)?

.Provides a means of locating edible feedstuffs, fresh water and bonding with mare & foal.

.Vomeronasal organ (VNO) - within the hard palate and detects pheromones and other scents when a horse raises its upper lip in order to direct the odour towards the VNO.

73
Q

Taste?

A

Taste?

.Closely associated with that of smell.

.Taste buds - on tongue, palate and in the throat.

.Foodstuffs - are tasted through being mixed with saliva which dissolves the chemicals within that foodstuff.

.Salivary glands - parotid glands in the throat, sublingual under the tongue and submandibular glands in the lower jaw.

74
Q

Touch?

A

Touch?

.The sensory receptors in the skin are mechanoreceptors for touch & pressure and thermoreceptors for heat & cold.

.Muzzle is very sensitive.

.Hypothalamus - a thermoregulatory centre.

.Sebaceous glands - secrete an oily discharge (sebum) in to the hair follicle to act as a water proofing coat and stop the skin drying out.

.White hairs have no pigment.

75
Q

Skin layers?

A

Skin layers?

.Skin layers - epidermis, dermis and subdermal layer.

.Epidermis is constantly being shed.

.Dermis - sweat and oil glands in the dermis pass through the epidermis to the surface through pores. Contains blood vessels, nerve fibres, lymphatic vessels, heat sensors, glands and hair follicles.

.Subdermal layer - below the dermis and attaches to underlying tissues. Subcutaneous fat is stored here for energy, store, insulation, cushions muscles and nerves.

.The skin is a barrier against UV light, mechanical, thermal, bacteria and chemical assault.

76
Q

Albinos?

A

Albinos?

.The pigment melanin cannot be synthesised because an enzyme is missing as a result of gene mutation and the iris has no pigment & has white hair.

77
Q

Sebaceous glands?

A

Sebaceous glands?

.In winter they become more active, promoting a greasier coat for warmth & waterproofing.

78
Q

Heat?

A

Heat?

.When heated the superficial blood vessels dilate to radiate more heat, the sweat glands are stimulated and the metabolic rate decreases.

79
Q

Sunburn in horses?

A

Sunburn in horses?

.Horses can get a sunburnt muzzle especially greys so use creams.

80
Q

Sweat?

A

Sweat?

.Some waste products are excreted in solution with sweat and salt is lost through sweat.

Equine Level 3 (14 decks)

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