Anatomy Lab Practical 2 Flashcards
The various amounts of air that can be inhaled and exhaled during different stages of breathing
Respiratory volumes
What are respiratory volumes used by medical professionals for?
- To determine the overall health and function of the lungs
- Diagnose and treat respiratory conditions
In obstructive lung diseases such as chronic
Obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD), obstruction of the lungs causes…
Over time, what does this cause?
Air to be “trapped” in the lungs when it
cannot be exhaled
Over time, this causes excess stretching of lung tissue
In restrictive lung diseases, there is…
Which causes…
A loss of elasticity or compliance in the lung tissue
Causes the lungs to be stiffer, and less air is brought into the lung tissue
How many lung volumes and respiratory capacities are there? What are they used for?
4
- Used to indicate lung health and function
The amount of air inhaled or exhaled on a normal breath
Tidal Volume (TV)
The additional air that can be forcefully inhaled past a normal tidal volume
inspiration
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
The additional air that can be forcefully exhaled past a normal tidal volume
expiration
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
The volume of air remaining in the lungs following a maximal exhalation
Reserve/Residual Volume
The total amount of air that can be forcefully expired after a maximum inhalation
Vital Capacity (VC)
The maximum amount of air that can be inspired after a normal expiration
Inspiratory Capacity (IC)
The total amount of air remaining in the lungs after a normal exhalation
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)
The total amount of air the lungs can contain
Total lung capacity (TLC)
What is the formula for Vital Capacity?
VC = TV+ IRV+ ERV
What is the formula for Inspiratory Capacity?
IC = IRV + TV
What is the formula for Functional residual Capacity?
FRC = ERV + RV
What is the formula for Total Lung Capacity?
TLC = TV + IRV + ERV + RV
The average value for females’ respiratory volumes and capacities is (1) ….. than males
Why?
20-25% less
- Because females typically have a smaller body size and smaller lungs than males
A medical test used to measure the four lung volumes
Spirometry
A simple, non-invasive
instrument used to measure the four lung volumes
Spirometer
What are 3 examples of lung diseases and conditions that are obstructive or restrictive in nature?
Asthma, COPD, and Pulmonary Fibrosis
What is the formula for Respiratory Minute Volume?
Respiratory Minute Volume (L/Min) = Tidal Volume (mL) x Respiratory Rate (breaths/min)
How can vital capacity be predicted?
Through the use of a monogram
A diagram that represents relations between three or more variable quantities with the use of numbered scales
A monogram
Tests that are performed to assess pulmonary function by measuring how long a person can hold
their breath after a maximum inhalation.
Breath-holding tests
What 3 things are breath-holding tests used to identify?
- Lung issues such as COPD, asthma
- Monitor disease progression over time
- Assess fitness levels in individuals
A longer breath-holding time generally indicates…
- Better pulmonary function
- Better functional reserve
- Larger lung capacity because the lungs are better able to help maintain body pH.
The respiratory system and cardiovascular system function to…
Take oxygen into the body from the atmospheric air and deliver it to the tissue cells
What do our body cells require to carry out metabolic reactions necessary for their survival?
Oxygen
What is equally important as oxygen delivery to body tissues?
The disposal of Carbon Dioxide
When carbon dioxide builds up in the blood, the pH of the blood becomes more acidic
Respiratory acidosis
What are the 5 symptoms of respiratory acidosis?
Headache, fatigue, confusion, anxiety, and tremors.
In more severe cases of respiratory acidosis, individuals can experience what 4 symptoms?
Heart arrhythmia, seizure, coma, and muscle weakness
Tidal volume can be measured with the use of a…
Dry gas meter
What is the formula for minute volume?
The total volume of air exhaled (ml) X the number of breaths taken over the collection period (minutes)
What is used to measure metabolic rate?
A dry gas meter
What are the units for metabolic rate?
ml O2 consumed/minute
The body’s rate of energy expenditure
Metabolic rate
What is the formula for Metabolic Rate?
Percentage of oxygen in inhaled air (20.95%) - percentage of oxygen in exhaled air in a bag MULTIPLIED by the minute volume
During physical activity, the metabolic rate of skeletal muscle tissue cells is…
Significantly higher and requires more oxygen uptake and delivery to the cells
The rate at which you obtain oxygen from the environment across the surface of the lungs
Ventilation
The rate at which oxygen is delivered to body tissue cells through the capillary walls
Perfusion
The rate of oxygen consumption (V02 ) is equal to both the rate at which you obtain oxygen from the environment across the surface of the lungs and the rate at which oxygen is delivered to body tissue cells through the capillary walls of the cardiovascular system
Ventilation-perfusion coupling
Ventilation = Perfusion; What is this called?
Ventilation-perfusion coupling
How is Ventilation increased?
By increasing the respiratory rate and
respiratory depth (tidal volume)
How is perfusion increased?
By increasing Heart Rate
In the respiratory system, the flow of air into and out of the lungs is called
The minute volume
In the
cardiovascular system, the flow of blood is…
Related to cardiac output (CO)
As we inhale, our lungs extract oxygen
from the air we breathe, leading to a difference in…
The concentration of oxygen in inhaled air (CO2i ) and the concentration of oxygen in exhaled air (CO2e)
Oxygen is lost from the blood supply through the capillary beds in systemic circulation. This leads to a difference in…
The concentration of oxygen in arterial blood (CO2a ) and the concentration of oxygen in venous blood (CO2v)
What is the formula for determining the rate of oxygen consumption for the respiratory system or cardiovascular system?
VO2= (Vm)(Co2i-Co2e) = (CO)(Co2a-Co2v)
In most resting people…
Arterial blood is 100% saturated with oxygen, but venous blood can be as low as 60% saturated
Each gram of hemoglobin can bind with…
1.34 ml of O2
What is the formula for calculating the maximum oxygen content in blood (arterial blood that is 100% saturated)?
Co2a = Average Hemoglobin Concentration (g Hb/100 mL blood) x 1.34 ml of O2/g Hb
What is the formula for calculating resting cardiac output?
CO = Vo2/(Co2a-Co2v)
What is the formula for calculating resting stroke volume?
SV (ml blood/beat) = CO (ml blood/min) /HR (beats/min)
During exercise, the oxygen content of venous blood …. due to increased oxygen demands by the body cells
Falls
What is the formula for calculating stroke volume during exercise using changes in pulse pressure?
(Pulse Pressure resting/Pulse Pressure exercising) = (Stroke volume resting/Stroke volume exercising)
PPr/PPe = SVr/SVe
What is the formula for calculating the cardiac output during exercise?
COe= SV x HR
What are the 3 formulas for calculating the oxygen content of venous blood during exercise?
- Vo2= (CO)(Co2a-Co2v)
- Vo2/CO= (co2a-co2v)
- Co2v = co2a - (vo2/CO)
The increase or decrease in the rhythm and rate of respiration is controlled by
Respiratory centers located in the medulla and pons
Which gas is most closely monitored in the blood?
Carbon dioxide
What is the normal pH of blood?
7.35-7.45
When carbon dioxide leaves the tissues and enters the blood cells, it combines with water to form…
Carbonic acid
What does carbonate dissociate into?
Hydrogen and bicarbonate ions
An increase in the blood pH when the concentration of hydrogen ions in the blood decreases
Respiratory alkalosis
While hyperventilating…
What does this cause?
An individual takes many deep breaths in a short period of time
Causes an excess loss of CO2 and a blood pH increase
Hyperventilating causes a decrease in…
Blood pressure and blood flow to the brain
Hyperventilating often results in
Dizziness and fainting
Temporary cessation of breathing that occurs until carbon dioxide levels increase enough to meet metabolic
demand
Apnea
2 respiratory disorders that affect an individual’s ability to breathe normally
COPD and Asthma
What are 2 examples of COPD? Are they reversible?
Emphysema
Chronic bronchitis
- No. COPD’s are normally irreversible
The result of inflammation in the bronchioles, reducing the amount of oxygen that can reach the alveoli.
Is this reversible or irreversible?
Asthma
- Reversible
As the subject continues with each trial in breath-holding tests.. There should be an (1)… in the amount of time they can hold their breath since (2)…
- Increase
- The subject is getting used to holding their breath for long periods of time
After each trial, the subject should be..
Breathing out after their large inhale
(1) and (2) are (3).. during exercise, since there is an increase in the force of the heartbeat due to higher metabolic rate and demand for oxygen
- Stroke volume
- Cardiac output
- Higher
Because of the higher demand for oxygen by the body’s cells the oxygen content in venous blood during exercise is (1)…. than during rest
Lower
What is the breathing pattern and rate of breathing during silent reading
- Breathing pattern is normal
- Rate of breathing is slower/decreased since the subject is concentrating
When reading aloud or singing a song, what is breathing pattern like?
Breathing pattern is irregular
During concentration, respiratory rate is…
slowed
- The respiratory centers such as the medulla and pons are suppressed
After removing the bag that air was rebreathed into, respiratory rate would…
increase to blow off the excess CO2 that builds up
After hyperventilating, respiratory rate..
decreases
When a subject pinches their nose and only breathes through their mouth, their respiratory rate would (1), but respiratory depth would (2)
- Decrease
- Increase to compensate for the deficient air flow in order to provide enough oxygen to the body’s tissues
A cavity or hole inside of a tube, blood vessel or hollow organ. For example, the blood
flows through the… of a blood vessel.
Lumen
A small, ball-shaped cluster of secretory cells surrounding ducts.
Acini
A tubular structure that transports secretions of a gland; comprised of simple cuboidal epithelium, arranged in a doughnut pattern
Duct
Large, roundish projections or divisions of an organ; can be seen with the naked
eye
Lobes
Small divisions of the cells in an organ, forming a functional unit; usually
require a microscope to be seen.
Lobules
The term for the 4 layers of tissue in the stomach, small intestine and large intestine
Tunics
A very thin tunic made of simple squamous epithelium that surrounds the outside of
the organ. It is often difficult to see because it is so thin, but it is always present in these organs.
Serosa
Lies immediately inside the serosa. It is comprised of at least two layers
of the smooth muscle - the outer layer always has muscle fibers running longitudinally down the
organ and the next layer in has muscle fibers running circularly around the organ
Muscularis Externa
Lay next to the muscularis externa. It is a rather empty-looking tunic in most
organs; what 3 things does this layer contain?
Submucosa
- Contains scattered nuclei, glandular tissue, and a few wavy collagen fibers
The layer closest to the lumen
Mucosa
What are the 4 layers of the alimentary canal? (From outermost to innermost)
Serosa
Muscularis Externa
Submucosa
Mucosa
What are the 3 layers of the mucosa (Working from the outside towards the inside)
- Muscularis Mucosa
- Lamina propria
- Epithelium
A very thin layer of
smooth muscle, usually quite distinct as a dark pink band
muscularis mucosa
A loose matrix of cells and ground
tissue
Lamina Propria
Protects the organ from the
contents in the lumen.
Epithelium
The medial cavity of the thorax within which the heart, great vessels, thymus, and parts of the trachea, bronchi, and esophagus are found
The mediastinum
The outermost layer of the digestive organ that covers the external surfaces
Visceral Peritoneum
The serous membrane covering the wall of the abdominal cavities/ lines the body wall
Parietal Peritoneum
The layer that lines the thoracic cavity and the superior face of the diaphragm
Parietal Pleura
Covers external lung surfaces, dipping into and lining its fissures
Visceral Pleura
The chief regulators of the internal environment of the body
The kidneys
How do the kidneys achieve homeostasis?
By regulating the pH and concentration of ions and water in the various body fluids
In addition, the kidneys also provide for the..
Elimination of the waste products of metabolism
How many nephrons are in the kidneys? What are the two main structures in the nephrons?
1 Million
- Renal Corpuscle
- Renal Tubule
A tuft of capillaries in the renal corpuscle
Glomerulus
What rate is blood filtered through the glomerulus at?
120 ml/min
What are the 3 major parts of the renal tubule?
Proximal convoluted tubule, Nephron loop (Loop of Henle), Distal convoluted tubule
The tubular (1)… is (2)… to blood plasma in composition except that (3)…
- Filtrate
- Similar
- Large molecules over 70,000 MW are excluded
Large molecules over 70,000 MW
Plasma Proteins
What is an example of a toxic by-product of metabolism and excess substances? What happens to these?
Salt
- Retained in the filtrate and excreted in urine
What rate are toxic by-products of metabolism and excess substances excreted in urine?
1 ml of urine is formed per minute
The final composition of urine reflects..
The integrity of kidney function and changes in blood composition
An analysis of urine that yields valuable information about the health of the kidney and of the body in
general
Urianalysis
Individuals with this disease are genetically unable to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine
Phenylketonuria
If accumulated in the body, what happens to phenylalanine?
It is converted to phenylpyruvic acid, which will appear in urine
An accumulation of phenylalanine in individuals with PKU can result in…
Seizures, Developmental delays and intellectual impairments
Individuals with this condition have either an imbalance or a deficit in the amount of insulin produced by the pancreas
Diabetes Mellitus
Fatty acid metabolites that are products of when sugar in the blood cannot be used as cellular fuel
Ketones
An increase in ketones will cause blood pH to..
Decrease
The presence of (1)… and (2)… in the urine, combined with a (3)… can be indicative of (4)…
- Glucose
- Ketones
- Low Urine pH
- Diabetes Mellitus
A combined test of urinary pH, protein, glucose, ketones, and occult blood
Labstix Test
What is the normal pH of urine
6
The pH of urine may be more (1).. with a (2)..
- Acidic
- A diet rich in proteins
An acidic pH can also result from what 3 causes?
Respiratory disorders, dehydration, or starvation
Alkaline urine results from what 3 reasons?
A diet rich in citrus fruits & dairy, vomiting, Urinary Tract Infection
Urine decomposes in the bladder with the production of ammonia.
Cystitis
The presence of protein in the urine that is a sign that the “filters,” or glomeruli, of the
kidney’s nephrons are damaged, allowing blood proteins to enter the filtrate
Proteinuria or albuminuria
High glucose levels in urine
Glycosuria
Increased levels of glucose in the urine are
commonly indicative..
Diabetes mellitus
Abnormally large amounts of ketone excretion
- What 2 things can this indicate?
Ketonuria
- Indicates diabetes mellitus or starvation
Blood not visible to the naked eye, found in the urine, typically suggests there is structural
damage within the urinary tract.
Occult Blood
Blood present in the urine indicates that an individual has what 3 things?
Urinary tract infection
Kidney stones
Cancerous cells
A disease in which the
glomeruli are damaged and plasma proteins and erythrocytes leak into the nephrons
Nephritis
Individuals with Nephritis will have…
Blood and high levels of proteins are present in their urine
One of the kidney’s main functions is to…
Around what value?
Regulate the osmolarity of the body fluids
- Around 300 milliosmoles/Liter
If an individual is overhydrated..
They will produce large amounts of minimally concentrated (dilute) urine
If an individual is dehydrated…
They will produce a small amount of highly concentrated urine
The ratio of the density of a substance compared to the density of distilled water.
Specific gravity
The urinometer is calibrated to give a correct reading only if the urine is at..
15 Degrees Celsius
If your urine is at a different
temperature, you will need to correct the specific gravity value by…
Adding 0.001 for every 3 degrees Celsius above, or by subtracting 0.001 for every 3 degrees Celsius below the calibration temperature
What is the normal range of urine specific gravity?
1.0015 to 1.035
Water with no present solutes
- What is the specific gravity of this?
Distilled water
- Specific gravity is 1.000
A (1).. specific gravity is found in individuals with (2)..
- Low
- Chronic nephritis
Slow, onset kidney disease
Chronic nephritis
A (3)… is observed in individuals with (4)…
- High
- Acute nephritis
The process of titrating silver nitrate to analyze the presence of chloride
ions in a substance using potassium chromate as an indicator
Mohr Method
What chemicals are used in the Mohr Method?
One drop of 20% potassium chromate and 2.9% of silver nitrate drop by drop
A white precipitate that forms on the bottom of the test tube after the Mohr method
Silver Chloride
Each drop of 2.9% silver nitrate added to produce the
reddish-brown colored solution represents …
1 g/liter of NaCl present in the urine
How many plots are used in the Mohr Method?
3 plots
During the LabStix Test, Describe the seconds and what 3 things you read in order
In 10 seconds, read the glucose portion
In 5 seconds, read the ketone portion
In 15 seconds, read the occult blood portion
During the LabStix test, for each urine sample, do you use the same reagent strip?
No. You use a new one with each urine sample.
