anatomy final Flashcards
1
Q
what is the purpose of the thorax?
A
covers and protects major cardiopulmonary organs
2
Q
angle of louis
A
the sternal angle
level of bifurcation of trachea into right and left main stem bronchi
3
Q
how many true and false ribs?
A
1-7 are true
8-12 are false
11-12 are floating
4
Q
where do you place a chest tube?
A
above the ribs to avoid trauma
5
Q
what is the function of the lungs?
A
exchanges gases between air and blood
6
Q
what is the homeostatic role of the lungs
A
regulates blood pH
regulates oxygen and carbon dioxide levels
7
Q
what is external respiration?
A
exchange of gases in lungs
8
Q
what is internal respiration?
A
exchange of gases within cells of the body
all cells require oxygen for metabolism and a means to remove carbon dioxide
9
Q
conducting zone of the respiratory system
A
trachea
bronchi
bronchioles
10
Q
respiratory zone of the respiratory system
A
respiratory bronchioles
alveolar ducts
alveolar sacs
11
Q
what nerve innervates the lung?
A
phrenic nerve and vagus nerve
12
Q
structures of the upper respiratory system
A
nose
mouth
pharynx
epiglottis
larynx
trachea
13
Q
structures of the lower respiratory system
A
bronchial tree
lungs
14
Q
sections of the pharynx
A
nasopharynx - posterior to nose
oropharynx - posterior to mouth
laryngopharynx - superior to larynx
15
Q
what epiglottis?
A
lid or flap that covers that larynx and trachea so food does not enter the lungs
16
Q
describe the trachea
A
windpipe
mucous membrane lining with cilia
c shaped cartilage rings
17
Q
what do the bronchi terminate into
A
air sacs called alveoli
18
Q
what are alveoli?
A
resembles a small balloon
CO2 diffuses from the blood and is exhaled
O2 diffuses form alveoli on inspiration
19
Q
what is the parietal pleura?
A
outer most layer
inner surface of thoracic cavity and diaphragm
20
Q
what is the visceral pleura?
A
inner layer
outer surface of the lung
21
Q
intrapleural pressure
A
between 2 membranes
less than atmospheric pressure
22
Q
how many lobes does the right lung have?
A
3
23
Q
how many lobes does the left lung have?
A
2
24
Q
where is the cardiac notch
A
only in the left lung
25
how many lobe segments does each lobe have?
upper - 3
middle/lingula - 2
lower - 5
26
functions of lung
humidifies air so that membranes don't dry out
warms air to maintain body temperature
filters air - cilia move mucus toward oral cavity to be expelled
27
how many alveoli in the lungs
300 million - provide tremendous surface area
28
define compliance
ability of lungs to expand
inspiration
disease - emphy, asthma, pneumonia
29
define elasticity
ability to recoil
expiration
30
surface tension
force between water molecules can cause the collapse of lungs
decreases compliance
31
surfactant
type II cells
breaks surface tension within alveoli
32
premature babies and surfactant
synthesis of surfactant starts in 24-28th week of gestation
need injections of surfactant if premature - essential to breathe
33
what happens if there is less surfactant
more surface tension - more risk of collapse
cannot breathe without surfactant
34
restrictive lung disease
less compliance
greater stiffness
cannot inhale
air cannot enter
pulmonary fibrosis
35
obstructive
loss of recoil
cannot exhale
air cannot leave
emphy, COPD
36
increase in volume of intrathoracic cavity
increases lung volume
decreases intrapulmonic pressure
causes air to rush into lungs
inspiration
37
decrease in volume of intrathoracic cavity
decreases lung volume
increases intrapulmonic pressure
causes air to rush out of lungs
expiration
38
diaphragm
flattens as it contracts
causes pressure changes that cause inspiration
contraction moves abdo contents forward and down
39
muscles that elevate the ribs
external intercostals
scalenes
sternocleidomastoid
pectoralis minor
pulls ribs laterally and upward
40
muscles that pull the ribs downwards in forced expiration
internal intercostals
rectus abdominis
internal oblique muscles of abdominal wall
41
is expiration passive or active?
passive recoil of diaphragm decreases intrathoracic cavity volume
no muscular effort needed at rest
42
airflow resistance equation
airflow = P1 - P2 / resistance
larger resistance = less airflow
43
what is the biggest factor affecting airflow at rest?
diameter of airway
44
what does bronchodilation do in exercise?
decreases resistance to airflow
45
what is pulmonary ventilation (VE)
amount of air moved in and out of lungs in a given time period
anatomical dead space + alveolar ventilation
VE = TV x f
5000ml = 500ml x 10
46
tidal volume (TV)
amount of air moved per breath
600ml in men
it is greater in trained athletes
47
residual lung volume (RLV)
air left in lungs after max exhalation
1200 ml in men
48
inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
maximum inspiration at end of tidal inspiration
3000ml
49
expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
maximum expiration at end of tidal epiration
1200ml
50
total lung capacity (TLC)
volume in lungs after maximal inspiration
6000ml
TLC = IC + TV + ERV + RLV
51
forced vital capacity (FVC)
maximum volume expired after maximum inspiration
4800ml
FVC = IRV + TV + ERV
52
inspiratory capacity (IC)
max volume inspired following tidal expiration
3600ml
IC = IRV + TV
53
functional residual capacity (FRC)
volume in lungs after tidal expiration
2400ml
FRC = ERV + RLV
54
what happens to lung volumes during pregnancy?
tidal volume increases
expiratory volume decreases
55
where does fluid leak out when the heart pumps?
the heart squeezes some fluid out of the capillaries
56
pressure in early arteries
120 mmHg
57
pressure in right atrium
5 mmHg
58
what do B and T cells do?
bring cells to infection so that they can fight it.
59
function of lymphatic system
collect excess protein-containing interstitial fluid and return it to bloodstream
60
what is lymph?
fluid that carries cells that help fight infection and disease
61
four functions of lymphatic system
transport clean fluid back to blood
drains excess fluids from tissues
removes debris from cells
transports fats from digestive system
62
amount of blood lost throughout capillaries
starts at 20 liters
ends at 17 liters
3 liters drained by lymphatic system
63
describes how blood leaves the capillaries
wall of capillaries have holes in them
blood oozes out
fills space between cells - called lymph
RBC, WBD, proteins are too larger to come out
64
what happens to blood when it loses its plasma?
gets thicker and thicker
high viscosity will cause blood clots
tissues will get puffed up and cause swelling
65
describe how lymphatic vessels flow
they are a one way system to the heart
66
describe the walls and valves of the collecting vessels in lymphatic
walls are thinner
more internal valves
67
where are capillaries absent from?
bones
teeth
bone marrow
entire nervous system
68
what drives movement of lymph
hydrostatic pressure drives entry of lymph into lymphatic capillaries
69
explain endothelial cells that form walls of lymphatic capillaries
not tightly joined
edges loosely overlap forming minivalves
70
size of lymph node
how many in body
1 to 25 mm
600 in body
71
what do WBCs do to lymph inside the nodes
breakdown and help with immunity
72
what cleans the lymph as it flows through the node?
lymphocytes
macrophages
73
how can nodes indicates infection?
swollen nodes are early indication of infection
74
what are lacteals
lymph vessels that take up lots of fats and chylomicrons
75
where does right lymphatic duct drain?
into junction of right internal jugular and right subclavian veins
76
where does the thoracic duct drain into?
left internal jugular and subclavian veins
77
what is the largest lymphatic organ
spleen
78
what does the spleen do?
filters blood
recycle old RBCs
store platelets and WBCs
fight certain bacteria like pneumonia and meningitis
79
how many lobe in thymus gland?
2
80
development of thymus gland
max size in puberty
decreased size in maturity
81
function of thymus
differentiation and maturation of T cells
82
what do T cells do once they leave the thymus?
provide immunity
83
how does edema happen?
when flow of lymph is interfered with
84
lymphedema
swelling in tissues
can be due to tumor pressure, parasites or surgery
85
describe elephantiasis
blockage by parasitic worms
infection acquired in childhood causing hidden damage to lymph system
manage by:
wrapping infected limbs and daily washing
86
what is the endocrine system?
all glands of body that secrete hormones directly into the blood stream
DO NOT CONTAIN DUCTS
87
what is the difference between endocrine and exocrine?
endo - no ducts
exo- has ducts
88
what stimulates endocrine glands?
nervous system
chemical changes in body
89
what is a gland
a structure that produces some substance or material
two types - endo and exo
90
explain lock and key mechanism in endocrine system
hormone is key
specific sit is lock
91
are all tissues that are exposed to hormones affected?
no. they only affect their target tissues. they bind to specific receptors and are stimulated by that reaction
92
basic hormone action
cells have receptors and bind only to that specific hormone type
93
do hormones carry information?
no, but they are only released to stimulate a chemical reaction
94
describe tropic hormones
secreted by endocrine to stimulate the activity of another endocrine gland
95
what is the role of the hypothalamus
monitors the body for temperature, pH, ect
signals pituitary gland if something needs corrected or an emergency needs a response
receives sensory info from the thalamus
96
what is the adenohypophysis?
anterior lobe of pituitary
97
what is the neurohypophysis?
posterior lobe of pituitary
98
hypothalamic control of hormone secretion from adeno:
has neurons that produces hormones and release them. they travel directly to anterior pituitary and release them into systemic circulation
99
location of pituitary gland
sits on hypophyseal fossa
connects to hypothalamus through stalk called the infundibulum
100
growth hormone (GH)
signals growth of body
101
prolactin
stimulates breast tissue to produce milk
102
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
stimulates thyroid gland to secrete hormones that influence metabolism
103
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
stimulates adrenal gland to signal hormones that help deal with stress
104
melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
stimulates melanocytes to produce more melanin and darken the skin
105
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
testes or ovaries to stimulate maturation of egg/sperm and induce secretion of sex hormones
106
lutinizing hormone (LH)
during menstrual cycle and signals ovulation
107
location of neurohyopohysis
part of brain and composed of neurons
108
what does neurohypophysis do?
stores hormones produced by hypothalamus and release when stimulated
109
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
stimulates collecting tubules of kidney to concentrate urine to reduce water loss.
110
diabetes insipidus
pee alot (polyuria) and fell thirsty (Polydipsia).
not diabetes but have similar S&S
111
oxytocin
induces contractions of smooth muscle of sexual organs
112
describe thyroid gland
two lobes
butterfly shape
113
thyroid hormone
contain iodine
increase metabolic rate
114
calcitonin
reduces excessive calcium by slowing down osteoclast activity
actively secreted in childhood to increase bone formation
115
describe parathyroid gland
posterior to thyroid gland
2-4 pairs of glands
116
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
opposes calcitonin
increases calcium levels in blood by activating osteoclast, stimulating kidney to reabsorb calcium, or activation of vitamin D production for calcium to be absorbed from food
117
adrenal gland
two glands within one structure
118
adrenal medulla
part of autonomic
releases adrenaline or epi to assist fight or flight
119
aldosterone
secreted by adrenal cortex
response to decrease in blood volume or BP
stimulates kidneys to reabsorb more water
120
glucocorticoids
secreted by adrenal cortex
keep blood glucose high to maintain brain activity during stressful situations
can direct lymphocytes or decrease inflammation
121
pineal gland
located in brain and controlled by hypothal
composed of endocrine cells that secrete melatonin to regulate internal body clocks
122
pancreas
produces digestive enzymes
123
insulin
released by pancreas when BG levels are high
stimulate absorption of glucose
released by beta cells
124
glucagon
released by pancreas wehn BG levels are low.
stimulate liver to release sugar
released by alpha cells
125
thymus
secretes thymic hormones
T-lymphocytes become immunocompetent
126
gonads
secrete sex hormones
androgens into test, est, progest
maintain sex characteristics involved in reproduction
127
what hormone is produced in kidneys?
erythropoietin (EPO)
stimulates production and maintenance or RBC
released when kidney detects decres in oxygen
red bone marrow produces more RBC
128
what is increased RBC called
polycythemia
129
anterior lobe releases which hormones
GH
TSH
FSH
LH
prolactin
ACTH
130
posterior lobe releases which hormones
ADH
oxytocin - stimulates uterus
131
describe the kidneys
paired, about fist size
partially protected by the 11th and 12th ribs
132
are the kidneys parallel?
no, left is higher than the right because the liver is below the right kidney.
133
how much of cardiac output do kidneys receive?
25%
134
2 major functions of the kidneys
filtration of blood
removes metabolic wastes from the body, esp those containing nirtogen
135
what do the ureters connect?
kidneys to urinary bladder
136
what is the urethra?
tube for excretion
137
where is the kidney located?
under the back muscles
below the lowest ribs
underneath the adrenal gland
138
renal medulla contains:
contains pyramids and papilla
139
renal pelvis contains:
calyx: division of pelvis
140
what is the functional unit of the kidney?
nephron
141
what is glomerular filtration rate?
volume of plasma filtered / unit time
approx 180 L/day
urine output is about 1-2 L/day
142
what does kidney regulate?
blood volume and composition
electrolytes
blood pH
blood pressure
143
what do diuretics do?
lower BP
release everything from kidney
more water in blood = kidney working harder
144
inside the renal corpuscle
glomerulus - capillaries
glomerular or Bowman's capsule
145
blood flow through nephron
enters cluster of tiny blood vessels (glom)
thin walls of glom allow smaller molecules, wastes, and fluid to pass into the tubule
larger molecules stay in blood vessel
146
substances secreted from kidney
hydrogen
creatine
ions
other wastes such as drugs
147
defne tubular secretion
transfer of materials from peritubular capillaries to renal tubular lumen - bloodstream into filtrate
occurs mainly by active transport and passive diffusion
148
define reabsorption
movement of essential solutes and water from filtrate back into bloodstream
149
bowman's capsule:
receives filtrate
150
proximal convolutes tubule:
reabsorption of water and solutes
151
nephron loop or loop of henle:
regulates concentration of urine
152
distal convolutes tubule and collecting duct
reabsorption of water and electrolytes
153
what is creatine
chemical compound left over from energy producing processes in muscles
exits body as waste in urine
154
where is it abnormal for glucose to be?
anywhere past the proximal convolutes tubule
155
what happens in kidney when decreased BP is detected?
adrenal gland is stimulated to release aldosterone, which increases sodium reabsorption from the urine
156
hyperaldosteronism can cause:
high BP, low potassium and an abnormal increase in blood volume
157
what does aldosterone do?
increase blood volume and blood pressure by causing kidney reabsorption of water and sodium
158
ADH vs aldosterone
ADH just reabsorbs water
aldosterone reabsorbs water and sodium
159
what does angiotensin II do?
stimulates adrenal cortical cells to secrete aldosterone
160
erythropoietin (EPO):
produced mainly by kidneys
stimulates production and maintenance of RBC
161
when is EPO released?
when kidney detects decrease in oxygen.
causes red bone marrow to produce more RBC
162
what is the pathology of increased RBC called?
polycythemia
163
describe the bladder
lined with epithelium - can stretch
lined with rugae
trigone on posterior wall where the ureters and urethra open does not have rugae. trigone is rigid
164
what is micturition
voiding, urination
internal urinary sphincter - involuntary
external urinary sphincter - voluntary
there are stretch receptors in bladder wall
165
three functions of the kidney
removes nitrogenous wastes
~urea
~uric acid
~creatinine
~ammonia
maintains homeostasis
~fluid balance
~electrolyte balance
~acid-base balance
excretory organ
~via blood filtration and formation of urine
166
where does nitrogenous waste come from
primarily from breakdown of proteins
167
aging and renal function
by age 35, begin to lose nephrons
by age 80, 30% reduction in nephron capactiy
168
what does water follow?
sodium
169
what does high sodium concentration equal?
more reabsorption of H2O
170
afferent arteriole dilation causes (renal)
increase in fluid volume
overhydration
high output heart failure
171
efferent arteriole constriction causes (renal)
kidney pathology
172
afferent arteriole constriction causes (renal)
hypertension
arteriolar spasm
173
functions of digestive system
ingest food
break down food into small molecules
nutrient absorption
eliminate nondigestable waste
174
structures included in GI tract
mouth
pharynx
esophagus
stomach
small intestine
large intestine
rectum
175
define ingestion
material enters mouth
176
define mechanical processing
crushing/shearing
makes material easier to move through tract
177
define digestion
chemical breakdown of food into small organic compounds for absorption
occurs in stomach and small intestine
178
define secretion
release of molecules by epithelium of GI tract
179
define absorption
movement of material across digestive epithelium
180
define excretion
removal of waste products
181
oral cavity, teeth, tongue function in digestion
mechanical processing
182
liver function in digestion
secretion of bile, storage of nutrients
183
gallbladder function in digestion
storage and concentration of bile
184
pancreas function in digestion
exocrine - digestive enzymes
endocrine - secrete hormones
185
large intestine function in digestion
prepare for elimination
dehydration causes compaction
186
what do digestive enzymes do?
break molecular bonds in large organic molecules
187
what is hydrolysis?
water is used to break down a compound
188
function of carbohydrases
break bonds between simple sugars
189
function of proteases
break bonds between amino acids
190
function of lipases
separate fatty acids from glycerides
191
type of muscle in digestive tract
smooth muscle
192
what is peristalsis
waves of contractions that push food through the digestive tract
193
longitudinal muscle in peristalsis
contracts backwards ahead of bolus
194
circular muscle in peristalsis
contracts downward behind bolus
forces bolus forwards
195
function of mouth and pharynx in digestion
mechanical processing
adding fluids - mucus and salivary gland secretion
limited digestion of carbos and lipids
196
describe esophogus
10 in long and .8 in wide
secretes mucus
takes solid food and liquids to stom
heartburn - acid go back up
behind trachea
197
major functions of the stomach
storage of ingested food
breakdown of ingested food
disruption of chemical bonds in food by acid and enzymes
produce hydrochloric acid to kill bacteria
198
what acid does stomach produce?
hydrochloric acid
199
how does stomach perform preliminary digestion of proteins?
by pepsin
200
how does stomach perform preliminary digestion of carbos?
amylase
201
how does stomach perform preliminary digestion of lipids?
lipase
202
describe stomach contents
become more fluid
2.0 pH
pepsin activity increased to digest proteins
203
does stomach absorb nutrients?
No. only digests
204
how much absorption occurs in the small intestine?
90%
205
describe the duodenum
closest to stom
mixing bowl - receives chyme from stom and digestive secretion from pancreas and liver
neutralizes acid before damage absorptive surfaces
206
where are acids neutralized in digestive system?
duodenum
207
describe the jejunum
middle segment
2.5 meters long
208
the jejunum is the location of most:
chemical digestion
nutrient absorption
209
describe the ileum
final seg
3.5 meters long
ends at ileocecal valve
210
what does ileocecal valve do?
controls flow of material from ileum into large intestine
211
how long does intestinal absorption take for material to pass from duodenum to end of ileum?
5 hours
212
describe large intestine
horseshoe shaped
from ileum to anus
inferior to stomach and liver
frames small intestine
called large bowel
1.5 meters long, 7.5 cm wide
213
large intestine functions
reabsorption of water
compaction of intestinal contents into feces
absorption of imp vitamins produces by bacteria
storage of fecal material prior to defecation
214
describe the cecum
an expanded pouch
receives from the ileum
stores materials and begins compaction
215
describe the appendix
slender and hollow
9 cm long
dominated by lymph tissue
216
describe the colon
larger diameter and thinner wall than small intestine
wall of colon forms a series of pouches called haustra
217
what do haustra permit
expansion and elongation of colon
218
what does the appendix help do?
storage of good bacteria for digestion
219
what is absorbed in the large intestine?
reabsorption of water
reabsorption of bile salts in the cecum
absorption in vitamins produced by bacteria
absorption of organic wastes
220
3 vitamins produced in large intestine
vitamin K (fat soluble) required by liver
biotin (water soluble) in glucose metabolism
pantothenic acid B5 (water soluble) for hormones
221
describe the rectum
last 6 inches of digestive tract
expandable for storage of feces
movement of fecal material triggers defecation
222
what is the anus?
exit orfice
223
accessory digestive organs
pancreas
liver
gall bladder
224
where does the pancreas lie?
posterior to stomach
from duodenum toward spleen
225
2 functions of the pancreas
secrete insulin and glucagon into bloodstream
exocrine cells of duct system secrete array of enzymes
226
what are hepatocytes?
liver cells
adjust circulating levels of nutrients
227
3 functions of the liver
metabolic function
hematological regulation cleans toxins out of blood
bile production - aids in digestion of lipids
228
what does the liver regulate?
composition of circulating blood
nutrient metabolism
waste product removal
vitamin storage (A, D, E, K)
nutrient storage (iron)
229
what is the largest reservoir in the body?
the liver
230
how much cardiac output does the liver receive?
25%
231
what are the functions of hematological regulation?
removal of circulating hormones
removal of antibodies
removal or storage of toxins
synthesis and secretion of bile
232
describe the gall bladder
pear shaped muscular sac
stores and concentrates bile prior to excretion
located on the posterior surface of liver's right lobe
233
what is the cystic duct?
extends form gall bladder
234
what forms the common bile duct?
cystic duct and common hepatic duct
dumps bile into duodenum
235
what are the functions of the gall bladder?
stores bile
releases bile into duodenum
236
what kind of diets cause gallstones?
fatty diets.
237
what is the largest and heaviest organ in the body?
skin
238
what are the 2 layers of skin?
epidermis - outer
dermis - inner
239
where do the appendages of the skin develop?
from the epidermis
240
what is beneath the dermis?
hypodermis
NOT part of skin
241
5 functions of the skin
protection: kill bac, against UV, block moisture
body temp regulation
cutaneous sensation
synthesis of vitamin D
excretion - sweat
242
define conduction
surface contacts surface
243
define convection
fluid passing through surface
244
5 layers of the epidermis
stratum corneum
stratum lucidum
stratum granulosum
stratum spinosum
stratum basale
245
which layer of epidermis produces stem cells?
stratum basale
246
what protein makes the skin waterproof?
keratin
247
what part of skin is highly vascular and has afferent nerve endings?
dermis
248
what is a dermal papilla?
cone shaped protrusion at base of follicle which feeds blood and nutrients to hair bulb
249
what is a sebaceous gland?
lubricates and keeps hair healthy and shiny
250
what are arrector pili?
tiny muscle anchored to hair follicle
stimulus cause them to contract and hair to stand up
251
2 layers of the dermis
papillary
reticular
252
describe the papillary layer
loose, areolar CT
finger like
253
describe the reticular layer
well vascularized
elastin fibers
collagen provides structure and strength
254
3 degrees of burns
first: superficial epi
second: epi through superficial dermis
third: entire epi and dermis
255
who is most prone to integ injury
older people
vit D production decreases
blood supply decreases
dermis is thin
256
function of vestibular system
maintain equilibrium of balance by detecting angular and linear acceleration of head
257
what do the vibrational waves do in vestibular?
convey info about sound, position, balance to central sensory neural structures
258
what is the utricle sensitive to?
change in horizontal movement
259
what does the saccule do?
gives info about vertical acceleration
260
describe push-pull systems in vestibular
if one canal is stimulated, the other is inhibited
261
function of the semicircular canals
detect angular or rotational acceleration of head
filled with endolymph
262
ampulla
bulge along canal
contains crista
263
cilia
project into gelatinous cupula
264
vestibulo-ocular reflex
helps stabilize visual field during head movements
leads eye opposite movement to steady gaze
265
horizontal semicircular canal
rotation of vertical axis
266
anterior SCC
sagittal plane
267
posterior SCC
frontal plane
268
symptoms of vestibular problems
vertigo
nausea
vomiting
intolerance of head motion
unsteady gait
postural instability
nystagmus - rapid eye movement
269
describe angina pectoris
chest pain caused by reduced blood flow to the heart
feels like squeezing, pressure, heaviness, tightness
270
atherosclerosis
build up of plaques breaking off leading to myocardial infarction
271
arteriosclerosis
inability of vessels to dilate and lead to MI
272
congestive heart failure
heart is unable to pump blood
more fluid sits in R vent and heart cannot send it to lungs so it backs up into R atrium
273
systolic heart faliure
decreased pumping function of the heart
274
diastolic heart failure
thickened and stiffened heart
does not fill with blood properly
275
elevated ST segment
MI
276
depressed ST segment
ischemia
277
riak factors for heart failure
CAD
HPTN
valvular heart disease
diabetes
congenital defects
obesity
age
smoking
high or low hematocrit
278
ejection fraction
percentage of blood that is pumped out of heart during each beat
279
preload
blood volume and stretch of ventricle
280
afterload
arteriosclerosis
atherosclerosis
HPTN
281
faster velocity of blood
decreases oxygen and nutrient uptake by tissues
282
where is the most glucose stored?
muscles
liver
283
somatostatin
balances insulin and glucagon
284
hyperglycemia
acute: polyuria
profound: coma, death
285
insulin resistance
when cells don't respond to insulin properly
286
ketones
produced by liver when body breaks down fat for energy
sign that body is burning fat instead to glucose
287
proteinuria
abnormal amounts of protein in urine
288
pleural effusion
fluid builds up in pleural space
289
ascites
fluid builds up in abdomen
290
pulmonary hypertension
heart's right side works harder
blood is forced backward into tricuspid valve
291
common causes of jugular vein distension
congestive heart failure
constrictive pericarditis
hypervolemia
superior vena cava obstruction
tricuspid valve stenosis
292
underlying causes of pulmonary hypertnesion
high BP in lung's arteries
CAD
high BP
liver disease
emphysema
293
bronchiectasis
larger sized bronchioles in lungs become wider and destroyed
294
bronchitis
cough that produces sputum
lasts 1 week to 21 days
