anatomy final Flashcards
what is the purpose of the thorax?
covers and protects major cardiopulmonary organs
angle of louis
the sternal angle
level of bifurcation of trachea into right and left main stem bronchi
how many true and false ribs?
1-7 are true
8-12 are false
11-12 are floating
where do you place a chest tube?
above the ribs to avoid trauma
what is the function of the lungs?
exchanges gases between air and blood
what is the homeostatic role of the lungs
regulates blood pH
regulates oxygen and carbon dioxide levels
what is external respiration?
exchange of gases in lungs
what is internal respiration?
exchange of gases within cells of the body
all cells require oxygen for metabolism and a means to remove carbon dioxide
conducting zone of the respiratory system
trachea
bronchi
bronchioles
respiratory zone of the respiratory system
respiratory bronchioles
alveolar ducts
alveolar sacs
what nerve innervates the lung?
phrenic nerve and vagus nerve
structures of the upper respiratory system
nose
mouth
pharynx
epiglottis
larynx
trachea
structures of the lower respiratory system
bronchial tree
lungs
sections of the pharynx
nasopharynx - posterior to nose
oropharynx - posterior to mouth
laryngopharynx - superior to larynx
what epiglottis?
lid or flap that covers that larynx and trachea so food does not enter the lungs
describe the trachea
windpipe
mucous membrane lining with cilia
c shaped cartilage rings
what do the bronchi terminate into
air sacs called alveoli
what are alveoli?
resembles a small balloon
CO2 diffuses from the blood and is exhaled
O2 diffuses form alveoli on inspiration
what is the parietal pleura?
outer most layer
inner surface of thoracic cavity and diaphragm
what is the visceral pleura?
inner layer
outer surface of the lung
intrapleural pressure
between 2 membranes
less than atmospheric pressure
how many lobes does the right lung have?
3
how many lobes does the left lung have?
2
where is the cardiac notch
only in the left lung
how many lobe segments does each lobe have?
upper - 3
middle/lingula - 2
lower - 5
functions of lung
humidifies air so that membranes don’t dry out
warms air to maintain body temperature
filters air - cilia move mucus toward oral cavity to be expelled
how many alveoli in the lungs
300 million - provide tremendous surface area
define compliance
ability of lungs to expand
inspiration
disease - emphy, asthma, pneumonia
define elasticity
ability to recoil
expiration
surface tension
force between water molecules can cause the collapse of lungs
decreases compliance
surfactant
type II cells
breaks surface tension within alveoli
premature babies and surfactant
synthesis of surfactant starts in 24-28th week of gestation
need injections of surfactant if premature - essential to breathe
what happens if there is less surfactant
more surface tension - more risk of collapse
cannot breathe without surfactant
restrictive lung disease
less compliance
greater stiffness
cannot inhale
air cannot enter
pulmonary fibrosis
obstructive
loss of recoil
cannot exhale
air cannot leave
emphy, COPD
increase in volume of intrathoracic cavity
increases lung volume
decreases intrapulmonic pressure
causes air to rush into lungs
inspiration
decrease in volume of intrathoracic cavity
decreases lung volume
increases intrapulmonic pressure
causes air to rush out of lungs
expiration
diaphragm
flattens as it contracts
causes pressure changes that cause inspiration
contraction moves abdo contents forward and down
muscles that elevate the ribs
external intercostals
scalenes
sternocleidomastoid
pectoralis minor
pulls ribs laterally and upward
muscles that pull the ribs downwards in forced expiration
internal intercostals
rectus abdominis
internal oblique muscles of abdominal wall
is expiration passive or active?
passive recoil of diaphragm decreases intrathoracic cavity volume
no muscular effort needed at rest
airflow resistance equation
airflow = P1 - P2 / resistance
larger resistance = less airflow
what is the biggest factor affecting airflow at rest?
diameter of airway
what does bronchodilation do in exercise?
decreases resistance to airflow
what is pulmonary ventilation (VE)
amount of air moved in and out of lungs in a given time period
anatomical dead space + alveolar ventilation
VE = TV x f
5000ml = 500ml x 10
tidal volume (TV)
amount of air moved per breath
600ml in men
it is greater in trained athletes
residual lung volume (RLV)
air left in lungs after max exhalation
1200 ml in men
inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
maximum inspiration at end of tidal inspiration
3000ml
expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
maximum expiration at end of tidal epiration
1200ml
total lung capacity (TLC)
volume in lungs after maximal inspiration
6000ml
TLC = IC + TV + ERV + RLV
forced vital capacity (FVC)
maximum volume expired after maximum inspiration
4800ml
FVC = IRV + TV + ERV
inspiratory capacity (IC)
max volume inspired following tidal expiration
3600ml
IC = IRV + TV
functional residual capacity (FRC)
volume in lungs after tidal expiration
2400ml
FRC = ERV + RLV
what happens to lung volumes during pregnancy?
tidal volume increases
expiratory volume decreases
where does fluid leak out when the heart pumps?
the heart squeezes some fluid out of the capillaries
pressure in early arteries
120 mmHg
pressure in right atrium
5 mmHg
what do B and T cells do?
bring cells to infection so that they can fight it.
function of lymphatic system
collect excess protein-containing interstitial fluid and return it to bloodstream
what is lymph?
fluid that carries cells that help fight infection and disease
four functions of lymphatic system
transport clean fluid back to blood
drains excess fluids from tissues
removes debris from cells
transports fats from digestive system
amount of blood lost throughout capillaries
starts at 20 liters
ends at 17 liters
3 liters drained by lymphatic system
describes how blood leaves the capillaries
wall of capillaries have holes in them
blood oozes out
fills space between cells - called lymph
RBC, WBD, proteins are too larger to come out
what happens to blood when it loses its plasma?
gets thicker and thicker
high viscosity will cause blood clots
tissues will get puffed up and cause swelling
describe how lymphatic vessels flow
they are a one way system to the heart
describe the walls and valves of the collecting vessels in lymphatic
walls are thinner
more internal valves
where are capillaries absent from?
bones
teeth
bone marrow
entire nervous system
what drives movement of lymph
hydrostatic pressure drives entry of lymph into lymphatic capillaries
explain endothelial cells that form walls of lymphatic capillaries
not tightly joined
edges loosely overlap forming minivalves
size of lymph node
how many in body
1 to 25 mm
600 in body
what do WBCs do to lymph inside the nodes
breakdown and help with immunity
what cleans the lymph as it flows through the node?
lymphocytes
macrophages
how can nodes indicates infection?
swollen nodes are early indication of infection
what are lacteals
lymph vessels that take up lots of fats and chylomicrons
where does right lymphatic duct drain?
into junction of right internal jugular and right subclavian veins
where does the thoracic duct drain into?
left internal jugular and subclavian veins
what is the largest lymphatic organ
spleen
what does the spleen do?
filters blood
recycle old RBCs
store platelets and WBCs
fight certain bacteria like pneumonia and meningitis
how many lobe in thymus gland?
2
development of thymus gland
max size in puberty
decreased size in maturity
function of thymus
differentiation and maturation of T cells
what do T cells do once they leave the thymus?
provide immunity
how does edema happen?
when flow of lymph is interfered with
lymphedema
swelling in tissues
can be due to tumor pressure, parasites or surgery
describe elephantiasis
blockage by parasitic worms
infection acquired in childhood causing hidden damage to lymph system
manage by:
wrapping infected limbs and daily washing
what is the endocrine system?
all glands of body that secrete hormones directly into the blood stream
DO NOT CONTAIN DUCTS
what is the difference between endocrine and exocrine?
endo - no ducts
exo- has ducts
what stimulates endocrine glands?
nervous system
chemical changes in body
what is a gland
a structure that produces some substance or material
two types - endo and exo
explain lock and key mechanism in endocrine system
hormone is key
specific sit is lock
are all tissues that are exposed to hormones affected?
no. they only affect their target tissues. they bind to specific receptors and are stimulated by that reaction
basic hormone action
cells have receptors and bind only to that specific hormone type
do hormones carry information?
no, but they are only released to stimulate a chemical reaction
describe tropic hormones
secreted by endocrine to stimulate the activity of another endocrine gland
what is the role of the hypothalamus
monitors the body for temperature, pH, ect
signals pituitary gland if something needs corrected or an emergency needs a response
receives sensory info from the thalamus
what is the adenohypophysis?
anterior lobe of pituitary
what is the neurohypophysis?
posterior lobe of pituitary
hypothalamic control of hormone secretion from adeno:
has neurons that produces hormones and release them. they travel directly to anterior pituitary and release them into systemic circulation
location of pituitary gland
sits on hypophyseal fossa
connects to hypothalamus through stalk called the infundibulum
growth hormone (GH)
signals growth of body
prolactin
stimulates breast tissue to produce milk
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
stimulates thyroid gland to secrete hormones that influence metabolism
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
stimulates adrenal gland to signal hormones that help deal with stress
melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
stimulates melanocytes to produce more melanin and darken the skin
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
testes or ovaries to stimulate maturation of egg/sperm and induce secretion of sex hormones
lutinizing hormone (LH)
during menstrual cycle and signals ovulation
location of neurohyopohysis
part of brain and composed of neurons
what does neurohypophysis do?
stores hormones produced by hypothalamus and release when stimulated
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
stimulates collecting tubules of kidney to concentrate urine to reduce water loss.
diabetes insipidus
pee alot (polyuria) and fell thirsty (Polydipsia).
not diabetes but have similar S&S
oxytocin
induces contractions of smooth muscle of sexual organs
describe thyroid gland
two lobes
butterfly shape
thyroid hormone
contain iodine
increase metabolic rate
calcitonin
reduces excessive calcium by slowing down osteoclast activity
actively secreted in childhood to increase bone formation
describe parathyroid gland
posterior to thyroid gland
2-4 pairs of glands
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
opposes calcitonin
increases calcium levels in blood by activating osteoclast, stimulating kidney to reabsorb calcium, or activation of vitamin D production for calcium to be absorbed from food
adrenal gland
two glands within one structure
adrenal medulla
part of autonomic
releases adrenaline or epi to assist fight or flight
aldosterone
secreted by adrenal cortex
response to decrease in blood volume or BP
stimulates kidneys to reabsorb more water
glucocorticoids
secreted by adrenal cortex
keep blood glucose high to maintain brain activity during stressful situations
can direct lymphocytes or decrease inflammation
pineal gland
located in brain and controlled by hypothal
composed of endocrine cells that secrete melatonin to regulate internal body clocks
pancreas
produces digestive enzymes
insulin
released by pancreas when BG levels are high
stimulate absorption of glucose
released by beta cells
glucagon
released by pancreas wehn BG levels are low.
stimulate liver to release sugar
released by alpha cells
thymus
secretes thymic hormones
T-lymphocytes become immunocompetent
gonads
secrete sex hormones
androgens into test, est, progest
maintain sex characteristics involved in reproduction
what hormone is produced in kidneys?
erythropoietin (EPO)
stimulates production and maintenance or RBC
released when kidney detects decres in oxygen
red bone marrow produces more RBC
what is increased RBC called
polycythemia
anterior lobe releases which hormones
GH
TSH
FSH
LH
prolactin
ACTH
posterior lobe releases which hormones
ADH
oxytocin - stimulates uterus
describe the kidneys
paired, about fist size
partially protected by the 11th and 12th ribs
are the kidneys parallel?
no, left is higher than the right because the liver is below the right kidney.
how much of cardiac output do kidneys receive?
25%
2 major functions of the kidneys
filtration of blood
removes metabolic wastes from the body, esp those containing nirtogen
what do the ureters connect?
kidneys to urinary bladder
what is the urethra?
tube for excretion
where is the kidney located?
under the back muscles
below the lowest ribs
underneath the adrenal gland
renal medulla contains:
contains pyramids and papilla
renal pelvis contains:
calyx: division of pelvis
what is the functional unit of the kidney?
nephron
what is glomerular filtration rate?
volume of plasma filtered / unit time
approx 180 L/day
urine output is about 1-2 L/day
what does kidney regulate?
blood volume and composition
electrolytes
blood pH
blood pressure
what do diuretics do?
lower BP
release everything from kidney
more water in blood = kidney working harder
inside the renal corpuscle
glomerulus - capillaries
glomerular or Bowman’s capsule
blood flow through nephron
enters cluster of tiny blood vessels (glom)
thin walls of glom allow smaller molecules, wastes, and fluid to pass into the tubule
larger molecules stay in blood vessel
substances secreted from kidney
hydrogen
creatine
ions
other wastes such as drugs
defne tubular secretion
transfer of materials from peritubular capillaries to renal tubular lumen - bloodstream into filtrate
occurs mainly by active transport and passive diffusion
define reabsorption
movement of essential solutes and water from filtrate back into bloodstream
bowman’s capsule:
receives filtrate
proximal convolutes tubule:
reabsorption of water and solutes
nephron loop or loop of henle:
regulates concentration of urine
distal convolutes tubule and collecting duct
reabsorption of water and electrolytes
what is creatine
chemical compound left over from energy producing processes in muscles
exits body as waste in urine
where is it abnormal for glucose to be?
anywhere past the proximal convolutes tubule
what happens in kidney when decreased BP is detected?
adrenal gland is stimulated to release aldosterone, which increases sodium reabsorption from the urine
hyperaldosteronism can cause:
high BP, low potassium and an abnormal increase in blood volume
what does aldosterone do?
increase blood volume and blood pressure by causing kidney reabsorption of water and sodium
ADH vs aldosterone
ADH just reabsorbs water
aldosterone reabsorbs water and sodium
what does angiotensin II do?
stimulates adrenal cortical cells to secrete aldosterone
erythropoietin (EPO):
produced mainly by kidneys
stimulates production and maintenance of RBC
when is EPO released?
when kidney detects decrease in oxygen.
causes red bone marrow to produce more RBC
what is the pathology of increased RBC called?
polycythemia
describe the bladder
lined with epithelium - can stretch
lined with rugae
trigone on posterior wall where the ureters and urethra open does not have rugae. trigone is rigid
what is micturition
voiding, urination
internal urinary sphincter - involuntary
external urinary sphincter - voluntary
there are stretch receptors in bladder wall
three functions of the kidney
removes nitrogenous wastes
~urea
~uric acid
~creatinine
~ammonia
maintains homeostasis
~fluid balance
~electrolyte balance
~acid-base balance
excretory organ
~via blood filtration and formation of urine
where does nitrogenous waste come from
primarily from breakdown of proteins
aging and renal function
by age 35, begin to lose nephrons
by age 80, 30% reduction in nephron capactiy
what does water follow?
sodium
what does high sodium concentration equal?
more reabsorption of H2O
afferent arteriole dilation causes (renal)
increase in fluid volume
overhydration
high output heart failure
efferent arteriole constriction causes (renal)
kidney pathology
afferent arteriole constriction causes (renal)
hypertension
arteriolar spasm
functions of digestive system
ingest food
break down food into small molecules
nutrient absorption
eliminate nondigestable waste
structures included in GI tract
mouth
pharynx
esophagus
stomach
small intestine
large intestine
rectum
define ingestion
material enters mouth
define mechanical processing
crushing/shearing
makes material easier to move through tract
define digestion
chemical breakdown of food into small organic compounds for absorption
occurs in stomach and small intestine
define secretion
release of molecules by epithelium of GI tract
define absorption
movement of material across digestive epithelium
define excretion
removal of waste products
oral cavity, teeth, tongue function in digestion
mechanical processing
liver function in digestion
secretion of bile, storage of nutrients
gallbladder function in digestion
storage and concentration of bile
pancreas function in digestion
exocrine - digestive enzymes
endocrine - secrete hormones
large intestine function in digestion
prepare for elimination
dehydration causes compaction
what do digestive enzymes do?
break molecular bonds in large organic molecules
what is hydrolysis?
water is used to break down a compound
function of carbohydrases
break bonds between simple sugars
function of proteases
break bonds between amino acids
function of lipases
separate fatty acids from glycerides
type of muscle in digestive tract
smooth muscle
what is peristalsis
waves of contractions that push food through the digestive tract
longitudinal muscle in peristalsis
contracts backwards ahead of bolus
circular muscle in peristalsis
contracts downward behind bolus
forces bolus forwards
function of mouth and pharynx in digestion
mechanical processing
adding fluids - mucus and salivary gland secretion
limited digestion of carbos and lipids
describe esophogus
10 in long and .8 in wide
secretes mucus
takes solid food and liquids to stom
heartburn - acid go back up
behind trachea
major functions of the stomach
storage of ingested food
breakdown of ingested food
disruption of chemical bonds in food by acid and enzymes
produce hydrochloric acid to kill bacteria
what acid does stomach produce?
hydrochloric acid
how does stomach perform preliminary digestion of proteins?
by pepsin
how does stomach perform preliminary digestion of carbos?
amylase
how does stomach perform preliminary digestion of lipids?
lipase
describe stomach contents
become more fluid
2.0 pH
pepsin activity increased to digest proteins
does stomach absorb nutrients?
No. only digests
how much absorption occurs in the small intestine?
90%
describe the duodenum
closest to stom
mixing bowl - receives chyme from stom and digestive secretion from pancreas and liver
neutralizes acid before damage absorptive surfaces
where are acids neutralized in digestive system?
duodenum
describe the jejunum
middle segment
2.5 meters long
the jejunum is the location of most:
chemical digestion
nutrient absorption
describe the ileum
final seg
3.5 meters long
ends at ileocecal valve
what does ileocecal valve do?
controls flow of material from ileum into large intestine
how long does intestinal absorption take for material to pass from duodenum to end of ileum?
5 hours
describe large intestine
horseshoe shaped
from ileum to anus
inferior to stomach and liver
frames small intestine
called large bowel
1.5 meters long, 7.5 cm wide
large intestine functions
reabsorption of water
compaction of intestinal contents into feces
absorption of imp vitamins produces by bacteria
storage of fecal material prior to defecation
describe the cecum
an expanded pouch
receives from the ileum
stores materials and begins compaction
describe the appendix
slender and hollow
9 cm long
dominated by lymph tissue
describe the colon
larger diameter and thinner wall than small intestine
wall of colon forms a series of pouches called haustra
what do haustra permit
expansion and elongation of colon
what does the appendix help do?
storage of good bacteria for digestion
what is absorbed in the large intestine?
reabsorption of water
reabsorption of bile salts in the cecum
absorption in vitamins produced by bacteria
absorption of organic wastes
3 vitamins produced in large intestine
vitamin K (fat soluble) required by liver
biotin (water soluble) in glucose metabolism
pantothenic acid B5 (water soluble) for hormones
describe the rectum
last 6 inches of digestive tract
expandable for storage of feces
movement of fecal material triggers defecation
what is the anus?
exit orfice
accessory digestive organs
pancreas
liver
gall bladder
where does the pancreas lie?
posterior to stomach
from duodenum toward spleen
2 functions of the pancreas
secrete insulin and glucagon into bloodstream
exocrine cells of duct system secrete array of enzymes
what are hepatocytes?
liver cells
adjust circulating levels of nutrients
3 functions of the liver
metabolic function
hematological regulation cleans toxins out of blood
bile production - aids in digestion of lipids
what does the liver regulate?
composition of circulating blood
nutrient metabolism
waste product removal
vitamin storage (A, D, E, K)
nutrient storage (iron)
what is the largest reservoir in the body?
the liver
how much cardiac output does the liver receive?
25%
what are the functions of hematological regulation?
removal of circulating hormones
removal of antibodies
removal or storage of toxins
synthesis and secretion of bile
describe the gall bladder
pear shaped muscular sac
stores and concentrates bile prior to excretion
located on the posterior surface of liver’s right lobe
what is the cystic duct?
extends form gall bladder
what forms the common bile duct?
cystic duct and common hepatic duct
dumps bile into duodenum
what are the functions of the gall bladder?
stores bile
releases bile into duodenum
what kind of diets cause gallstones?
fatty diets.
what is the largest and heaviest organ in the body?
skin
what are the 2 layers of skin?
epidermis - outer
dermis - inner
where do the appendages of the skin develop?
from the epidermis
what is beneath the dermis?
hypodermis
NOT part of skin
5 functions of the skin
protection: kill bac, against UV, block moisture
body temp regulation
cutaneous sensation
synthesis of vitamin D
excretion - sweat
define conduction
surface contacts surface
define convection
fluid passing through surface
5 layers of the epidermis
stratum corneum
stratum lucidum
stratum granulosum
stratum spinosum
stratum basale
which layer of epidermis produces stem cells?
stratum basale
what protein makes the skin waterproof?
keratin
what part of skin is highly vascular and has afferent nerve endings?
dermis
what is a dermal papilla?
cone shaped protrusion at base of follicle which feeds blood and nutrients to hair bulb
what is a sebaceous gland?
lubricates and keeps hair healthy and shiny
what are arrector pili?
tiny muscle anchored to hair follicle
stimulus cause them to contract and hair to stand up
2 layers of the dermis
papillary
reticular
describe the papillary layer
loose, areolar CT
finger like
describe the reticular layer
well vascularized
elastin fibers
collagen provides structure and strength
3 degrees of burns
first: superficial epi
second: epi through superficial dermis
third: entire epi and dermis
who is most prone to integ injury
older people
vit D production decreases
blood supply decreases
dermis is thin
function of vestibular system
maintain equilibrium of balance by detecting angular and linear acceleration of head
what do the vibrational waves do in vestibular?
convey info about sound, position, balance to central sensory neural structures
what is the utricle sensitive to?
change in horizontal movement
what does the saccule do?
gives info about vertical acceleration
describe push-pull systems in vestibular
if one canal is stimulated, the other is inhibited
function of the semicircular canals
detect angular or rotational acceleration of head
filled with endolymph
ampulla
bulge along canal
contains crista
cilia
project into gelatinous cupula
vestibulo-ocular reflex
helps stabilize visual field during head movements
leads eye opposite movement to steady gaze
horizontal semicircular canal
rotation of vertical axis
anterior SCC
sagittal plane
posterior SCC
frontal plane
symptoms of vestibular problems
vertigo
nausea
vomiting
intolerance of head motion
unsteady gait
postural instability
nystagmus - rapid eye movement
describe angina pectoris
chest pain caused by reduced blood flow to the heart
feels like squeezing, pressure, heaviness, tightness
atherosclerosis
build up of plaques breaking off leading to myocardial infarction
arteriosclerosis
inability of vessels to dilate and lead to MI
congestive heart failure
heart is unable to pump blood
more fluid sits in R vent and heart cannot send it to lungs so it backs up into R atrium
systolic heart faliure
decreased pumping function of the heart
diastolic heart failure
thickened and stiffened heart
does not fill with blood properly
elevated ST segment
MI
depressed ST segment
ischemia
riak factors for heart failure
CAD
HPTN
valvular heart disease
diabetes
congenital defects
obesity
age
smoking
high or low hematocrit
ejection fraction
percentage of blood that is pumped out of heart during each beat
preload
blood volume and stretch of ventricle
afterload
arteriosclerosis
atherosclerosis
HPTN
faster velocity of blood
decreases oxygen and nutrient uptake by tissues
where is the most glucose stored?
muscles
liver
somatostatin
balances insulin and glucagon
hyperglycemia
acute: polyuria
profound: coma, death
insulin resistance
when cells don’t respond to insulin properly
ketones
produced by liver when body breaks down fat for energy
sign that body is burning fat instead to glucose
proteinuria
abnormal amounts of protein in urine
pleural effusion
fluid builds up in pleural space
ascites
fluid builds up in abdomen
pulmonary hypertension
heart’s right side works harder
blood is forced backward into tricuspid valve
common causes of jugular vein distension
congestive heart failure
constrictive pericarditis
hypervolemia
superior vena cava obstruction
tricuspid valve stenosis
underlying causes of pulmonary hypertnesion
high BP in lung’s arteries
CAD
high BP
liver disease
emphysema
bronchiectasis
larger sized bronchioles in lungs become wider and destroyed
bronchitis
cough that produces sputum
lasts 1 week to 21 days
