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Anatomy FINAL Flashcards

1
Q

Sympathetic division has widespread effects:

A

Short preganglionic fibers, long postganglionic fibers (except at adrenal medulla)
Preganglionic neurons are limited to spinal cord segments T1–L2
Preganglionic neurons release ACh; most postganglionic fibers release NE

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2
Q

Parasympathetic division has specific effects:

A

Long preganglionic fibers, short postganglionic fibers
Ganglionic neurons are located in ganglia within or next to target organs
Preganglionic neurons are limited to cervical and sacral spinal cord segments
All neurons are cholinergic
Effects are generally brief and restricted

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3
Q

Chain Ganglia

A

Thoracolumnar
Innervates visceral effectors by spinal nerves + visceral organs in thoracic cavity.

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4
Q

Collateral Ganglia

A

Innvervates organs in abdominalpelvic cavity
Thoracolumnar

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5
Q

Adrenal Medullae

A

Thoracolumnar
secretes NT’s into circulation.

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6
Q

Parasympathetic division is also known as

A

cranialsacral

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7
Q

Sympathetic nerves have _____ preganglonic and ____ post ganglionic nerves. What about Parasympathetic?

A

Short, Long
Long, short

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8
Q

Sympathetic

A

Fight or flight
need to be alert
emergency situations
reduced digestive and urinary functions
increased metabolic rates (wants cells to activate and react to the dire situation)

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9
Q

Parasympathetic

A

Rest and digest
conserve and maintain energy
post-meal

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10
Q

Dual innervation

A

all visceral organs served by both divisions, but cause opposite effects.

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11
Q

autonomic tone

A

both pathways are slightly active.
Nerves maintain background level activity, they can increase or decrease activity (provides greater range of control)

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12
Q

Heart receives dual innervation:

A

stimulating parasympathetic nerves and inhibiting sympathetic.

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13
Q

Where does autonomic tone occur

A

where dual innervation occurs
more important where it does not occur

especially important in areas where only one division occurs.

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14
Q

Some organs are innervated by

A

only one division
sympathetic control w/ blood vessel diameter

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15
Q

NE is released from _____ at Smooth muscle cells in ______

A

sympathetic fibers, blood vessel walls.

sympathetic tone keeps muscles partially contracted.

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16
Q

Where more blood flow is needed,

A

rate of NE release decreased
sympathetic cholinergic fibers are stimulated
smooth muscle cells relax and blood vessels dilates.

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17
Q

What are the three characteristics of higher-order functions?

A

A
Require the cerebral cortex
involve conscious and unconscious information processing.
Subject to adjustment over time (not innate, fixed behaviors)

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18
Q

fact vs. skill memories

A

Fact: Cerebellum w/ motor movements
Skill: Action to it, a learned behavior- riding a bike, playing an instrument

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19
Q

Q
Short-term vs. Long-term memory:

A

Short: don’t last for a long time, during the period you have them you can recall them quickly.
Long: lasts for a longer period of time especially if you’re consistently using that skill.

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20
Q

Steps of memory storage

A

Sensory Input > short term memory ? Consolidation > Secondary Memory > Tertiary Memory

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21
Q

Fact memory is stored in

A

cerebral cortex

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22
Q

Skill memory is stored in

A

cerebral cortex and cerebellar cortex

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23
Q

What brain regions are involved in memory consolidation and access?

A

A
Hippocampus + amygdaloid body (memory consolidation for long-term memory)
nucleus basalis
(near diencephalon- unknown role)
cerebral cortex
(storage of long-term memory)

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24
Q

Anatomical + Physiological Changes in Neurons + Synapses

A

Increased neurotransmitter release
Facilitation at synapses
Formation of additional synaptic connections

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25
Frequency + Amplitude from High Frequency/Low Amp > Low Frequency/High Amp
Awake > REM > DSW (slow wave)
26
Reticular Activating System
regulates behavioural arousal, consciousness and motivation.
27
Rods will tell you
the absence of light- contrast
28
Cones will tell you
color and a very sharp image, but you need an abundance of light in order to activate cones
29
Light transduction:
rods and cones > bipolar cells > ganglion cells > SCN
30
Amacrine cell
can help bring a cell to an action potential for the next step- alter the sensitivity to the eye- help that msg be transferred or inhibits it.
31
Fovea centralis
where we are going to get our clearest, sharpest vision
32
optic disc
where the signal is received, where the blood vessels to the eye are.
33
Anterior cavity
aqueous humor, like CSF where this a production point and an exit point.
34
Aqueous humor is needed for
A nutrient and waste transport, fluid cushion, provides pressure to retain shape
35
Ciliary body is in the
vascular layer
36
Entrance and Exit point for the aqueous humor:
Enter: Ciliary Body Exit: scleral venous sinus
37
Vitreous Humor
Gelatinous- makes sure the structure of the eyeball is maintained- it is not circulated through.
38
Posterior cavity has
Vitreous Humor
39
Q Lens is attached to the ciliary body via
ciliary zonule (ligaments)
40
Lens:
be able to change to shape of it in response to light and focus light on the retina. how’s two regions: lens epithelium anteriorly and lens fibers which forms the bulk of lens
41
Lens fibers are filled with
A transparent protein crystallin (needs to be transparent in order for light to go through)
42
Lens in general become ____ with age.
dense, convex, less elastic (ability to maintain eyeball structure fails; can’t round it out anymore).
43
Cataracts
clouding of lens (proteins clump over time), can be taken out and restored
44
Focal point
specific point of intersection of light rays on retina (where we want to converge to get to the retina)
45
Astigmatism:
A condition where light passing through cornea and lens I son t refracted properly; visual image is distorted.
46
Accommodation:
autonomic adjustment of eye to provide clear vision lens become rounder to focus on nearby objects flatter lens allows focus on distant objects
47
Near vision:
A light rays aren’t parallel, lens need to change in order to focus those rays on our retina Ciliary muscle (arranged in a circle) contracts. letting ligaments go loose, not so much tension, lets it round out.
48
Distant vision:
Lens flatten, light rays are parallel, ciliary muscle relaxes which causes ligaments to stretch and cause tension
49
Light at the point at the top is focused on ___
lower retinal surface, upside down, and reversed
50
Near sighted means
you can see things close to you, but not far. Eyeball is too long/deep- when you focus light rays it’s right in front of retina not on it. Corrected with concave lens
51
Far-sighted means
you can see things far, but not close. Eyeball is too short, the light rays will meet behind the retina because there’s no convergence on the retina. Corrected with convex lens
52
Optic radiation
bundle of projection fibers linking thalamus with visual cortex
53
Order of ossicles
Malleus > incus > stapes (pushes on oval window)
54
Muscles are contractive so that
they don’t bounce on each other really hard.
55
Vestibule
lets us know about linear movements.
56
Semicircular canals
lets us know about rotational movement.
57
Spiral organ
contains hair cells that get bent; receptor for hearing.
58
Olfactory pathway to the cerebrum:
Olfactory epithelium > nerve fiber (I) > bulb > tract > CNS
59
Lamina propria
connective tissue that is made up of blood vessels and signal transduction.
60
What three structures do not go through the thalamus, but receive the stimulus from odorants?
olfactory cortex, hypothalamus, and limbic system (only one of the special senses that doesn’t use the thalamus).
61
Our olfactory sensory neuron is a bipolar neuron that is also a
odorant receptor
62
Q How does an olfactory sensory neuron receive the odorants?
Olfactory dendrites at the surface that contain receptor proteins.
63
Basal epithelium cells will
divide to replace worn-out olfactory sensory neurons.
64
Using a neuron as a receptor for the odorant to bind to to induce mechanisms that help depolarize the receptor cell.
Olfaction
65
Olfactory receptors are replaced ____
frequently
66
What happens to the number of olfactory neurons as we age?
they decline with age
67
Filiform papillae have no A
taste buds
68
Fungiform, vallate, and foliate DO have ____ unlike filiform papillae
taste buds
69
wherever the taste buds are are where the ____ are
gustatory receptors are.
70
gustatory epithelial cells
A receive the dissolved material from saliva and start transduction.
71
Transduction from the gustatory epithelium cells travels to the ____ and the tastants bind to them.
taste hairs
72
Q Taste buds can become damaged, so taste buds have ____
basal epithelium cells.
73
Unlike olfactory, there are two ways to depolarize the gustatory cell. What two mechanisms allow for this?
Salt/Sour channels + sweet, bitter, and umami receptors
74
Q Salt/Sour channels have ____ to have Na and H to travel in to depolarize the cell.
leak channels
75
Sweet, bitter, and umami receptors utilize
more like olfaction (having a having a structure like an odorant, in this case gustucin, bind to the protein to depolarize the cell
76
Gustation pathway:
A Cranial nerve VII, IX, X > medulla oblongata > thalamus > gustatory cortex
77
Taste sensitivity ____ with age
Decreases with age, that is to say you have high sensitivity as a kid and low as an adult.
78
One hormone can have many hormones as long as they have _____
the receptor for that hormone.
79
both nervous and endocrine system:
function to maintain homeostasis regulated by negative feedback rely on release of chemicals that bind to specific receptors.
80
Q Differences between nervous system and endocrine system:
Nervous: Fast, but brief Endocrine: Slow/long-term
81
Amino acid derivatives (changed slightly and become a hormone)
Small; not lipid soluble Ex. thyroid hormone, serotonin, melatonin. Can’t go lipid bilayer.
82
Peptide hormones
Chains of amino acids, not lipid soluble Ex. insulin, growth hormone, ADH
83
Lipid derivative
Derived from fatty acids or cholesterol; lipid soluble, can cross plasma membrane, need a transport protein for this.
84
Q Hormones may circulate freely or travel bound to ___
special carrier proteins
85
When hormones become inactivated, they
diffuse out of bloodstream and bind to receptors on target cells are absorbed and broken down by liver or kidneys are broken down by enzymes in blood or interstitial fluids.
86
Mechanisms of hormone action
A alter genetic activity alter rate of protein synthesis change membrane permeability
87
Catecholamines and peptide hormones:
not lipid soluble unable to penetrate plasma membrane bind to receptor proteins on outer surface of plasma membrane (extracellular receptors)
88
Steroid and thyroid hormones:
lipid soluble diffuse across plasma membrane and bind to receptors inside cell.
89
Two cell types in the parathyroid glands
A Parathyrioid cells: used for making PTH Oxyphil cells: function is unknown. Hormone producing cells of the gland.
90
Increased Calcitonin = _____ Calcitriol
decreased, responds to increased secretion of calcium
91
Kidney’s help get rid of excess
ions to bring the body back to homeostasis
92
Decreased Blood, with decreased calcium levels =
Parathyroid cells > PTH > kidneys > increased reabsorption of calcium and calcium is released from the bone. Increased calcitriol.
93
Humoral Stimulus
Not a hormone, but an increase or decrease of it (ions) will cause the release of hormones elsewhere.
94
Hormonal stimuli
(arrival or removal of hormone)
95
Neural stimuli
(neurotransmitters)
96
Hormones of Anterior Lobe
TSH, ACTH, PRL, GH, FSH, LH
97
Hormones of Posterior Lobe
ADH, OXT
98
Thyroglobulin
Globular protein synthesized by follicle cells Secreted into colloid of thyroid follicles Contains the amino acid tyrosine
99
Homeostasis of Thyroid Hormones involves:
Restoration from increasing T2 and T4 concentrations in blood.
100
The main action of antidiuretic hormone is
increased water conservation by kidneys.
101
Catecholamines and peptide hormones
Not lipid soluble Unable to penetrate plasma membrane Bind to receptor proteins on outer surface of plasma membrane (extracellular receptors
102
Steroid and thyroid hormones
Lipid soluble Diffuse across plasma membrane and bind to receptors inside cell (intracellular receptors)
103
The three mechanisms of hypothalamic integration of neural and endocrine function are
1) the hypothalamus produces regulatory hormones that control secretion by endocrine cells in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. 2) The hypothalamus contains autonomic centers that exert direct neural control over the endocrine cells of the adrenal medullae. 3) The hypothalamus releases ADH and oxytocin into the bloodstream at the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. These mechanisms are adjusted through negative feedback loops involving hormones released by peripheral endocrine tissues and organs.
104
PTH _____ calcium levels, meaning that there is an activation of osteoclasts that ____
increases, absorb calcium.
105
Myopia
Lens is too long and less round
106
Hyperopia
Lens is too short and round
107
1. Tympanic membrane 2. Displacement of MIS 3. Oval Window produces pressure waves of the Scala vestibuli 4. Waves distort basilar membrane > round window of Scala tympani 5. Vibration of basilar membrane causes vibration of hair cells against tectorial membrane 6. Info is relayed to the CNS over the cochlear nerve.
Sound Transduction
108
Stapes moves inward
Round window pushed outward
109
Stapes moves outward
Round window pulled inward
110
1. Stimulation of hair cells at basilar membrane activates sensory neurons. 2. Sensory > auditory through cochlear nerve to the nucleus on that side 3. Information ascends from each cochlear nucleus to the superior olivary nuclei of the pons and the inferior colliculi of the midbrain. 4. Inferior colliculi > unconscious motor responses to sounds 5. Ascending auditory information goes to the medial geniculate body. 6. Projection fibers then deliver the information to specific locations within the auditory cortex of the temporal lobe.
Auditory transduction
111

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