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anatomy 212 > Anatomy exam 3 > Flashcards

Anatomy exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

immune system

A

protects us from infectious agents and harmful substances

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2
Q

Immunity differs based on

A

cells
cell response
mechanisms of eliminating harmful substances
time for response

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3
Q

innate immunity

A

skin and mucosa membranes and nonspecific internal defenses
- macrophages, natural killer cells neutrophils, dendritic cells, eosinophils, basophils, mast cells, chemicals, and physiologic responses

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4
Q

adaptive immunity

A

T and B lymphocytes
- plasma cells

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5
Q

innate immunity charateristics

A
  • responds nonspecifically, the first line of defense ( mucosal membrane)
  • the second line of defense (internal processes)
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6
Q

phagocytic cells

A

neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells

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7
Q

Proinflammatory chemical-secreting cells

A

basophils and mast cells

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8
Q

apoptosis

A

natural killer cell

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9
Q

parasite destroying cell

A

eosinophils

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10
Q

interferon

A

synthesises enzyme that interfere with viral repilcation

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11
Q

Complement system

A

over 30 plasma proteins work with complement antibodies
- identify with the letter C and a number and synthesized by the liver
Classical pathway: antibody attaches to a foreign substance and the complement binds to antibody
Alternative: complement binds to polysaccharides of bacteria or fungal cell

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12
Q

opsonization

A

complement protein binds to the pathogen
- inflammation is enhanced by this ( activates mas cels and basophils; attracts neutrophils and macrophages)

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13
Q

cytolysis

A

complement triggers the destruction of the target cell

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14
Q

membrane attack complex

A

formed by complement proteins; creates a channel in target cell membrane

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15
Q

elimination of immune complexes

A

complement linked antigen-antibody complexes to erythrocytes
cells move to liver and spleen where complexes are stripped off

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16
Q

inflammation

A

the immediate response that wards off unwanted substances
part of innate immunity; duration is 8-10 days
1: release of chemotactic factors: mast and basophil cells
2: vasodilation of arterioles, an increase of capillary permeability, display of CAMS
3: recruitment of immune cells ( marination, diapedesis, and chemotaxis)
4: deliver of plasma proteins

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17
Q

cardinal signs of inflammation

A

redness, heat, swelling, pain, loss of function

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18
Q

fever

A

pyrexia; normal is 37c
- pyrogens circulate through blood and target the hypothalamus
- hypothalamus releases prostaglandins E2
- hypothalamus raises temperature

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19
Q

benefits of fever

A

inhibits the reproduction of bacteria and viruses
promotes interferon activity
increases adaptive immunity
accelerates tissue repair
increases CAMs
- leave a low fever untreated

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20
Q

adaptive immunity

A

specific response to antigen
longer response time than innate immunity
- cell-mediated ( T cells)
- humoral immunity ( B cells, plasma cells and antibodies)

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21
Q

Cell-mediated immunity

A

T lymphocytes types:
- cytotoxic- apoptosis
- helper - release cytocons

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22
Q

humoral immunity

A

B lymphocytes
- plasma cells: produce antibodies

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23
Q

antigens

A

Antigen: a substance that binds to a T lymphocyte or antibody
pathogens are detected by lymphocytes because they contain antigens
Examples: protein capsid of virus, cell walla of bacteria or fungi, bacterial toxins, and abnormal proteins/ tumor antigens

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24
Q

antigenic determinant

A

also known as epitope
- the specific site on the antigen is recognized by the immune system
- pathogenic organisms can have multiple determinants
each has a different shape

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25
Q

immunogen

A

antigen inducing an immune repsonse

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26
Q

immunogenicity

A

ability to trigger a response
increasing factors include:
foreignness, size, complexity, or quantity

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27
Q

Haptens

A

a small foreign molecule that induced an immune response when attached to a carrier molecule in a host

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28
Q

T lymphocyte structure

A

CD4 proteins and TCR on helper ( assist in cell mediation, humoral and innate immunity)
CD8 and TCR on cytotoxic (destroy cells)
- CD facilitates interaction
- antigen presented by another cell

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29
Q

B lymphocyte structure

A

antibodies on cell make direct contact with antigen

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30
Q

antigen presentation

A

cells display antigen on plasma membrane so T cells can recognize it

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31
Q

antigen presentation cells (APC’s)

A

Include: dendritic cells, macrophages, and B-lymphocytes
Immune cells present to both help and cytotoxic cells
- requires attachment to MHC

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32
Q

Major histocompatibility complex ( MHC)

A

group of trasnmembrane protiens
CD4 binds with MHC class 2; CD8 binds with MHC class 1

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33
Q

life events in lymphocytes

A

Formation and maturation: occurs in red bone marrow and thymus + can recognize foreign antigens
Activation: in secondary lymphatic structures they are exposed to anitgen and activated
Effector response: T lymphocytes move to site of infection; B lymphocytes stay and release large quantities of antibodies then antibodies are transported to infection through blood and lymph

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34
Q

antigen challenge

A

first encounter bewteen antigen and lymphocyte
- happens in secondary structures ( spleen, lymph node, respiratory, GI, urogenital tracts, tonsils or malt)

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35
Q

clonal selection

A

forming clones in response to antigen
- all formed cells have a matching TCR or BCR for antigens

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36
Q

activation of lymphocytes
T helper

A
  • CD4 binds with MHC 2 of APC; TCR interacts w MHC 1
  • ## Helper T releases IL2 which binds with it
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37
Q

activation of lymphocytes
Cytotoxic

A

-CD8 binds with MHC 1 and TCR interacts with MHC 1
- IL2 is released which has helper T cells activate cytotoxic cells

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38
Q

activation of lymphocytes
B cells

A

-free antigen binds to BCR
-B lymphocyte engulfs and presents antigen to helper t cell
- IL4 released from activated helper T lymphocyte stimulates B lymphocyte

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39
Q

effector response

A

lymphocytes eliminate antigen
Helper T: release IL2 and IL4 and regulate cells of adaptive and innate immunity
Cytotoxic: apoptosis
Plasma: create antibodies

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40
Q

Effector response to T lymphocytes

A

Helper t cells migrate to the site of infection, help with B lymphocytes, activate cytokines t lymphocytes with cytokines, and stimulate innate immune system cells

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41
Q

Effector response to B lymphocytes

A

B lymphocytes become plasma cells
plasma cells synthesize and release antibodies
- cells remain in the lymph nodes
- produce millions of antibodies during 5 days life span
- antibodies circulate until antigen is found

42
Q

antibody titer

A

circulating blood concertation of antibody antibody against a specific antigen

43
Q

antibodies

A

immunoglobin proteins produced against a particular antigen
- antibodies tag pathogens for destruction by immune cells
- soluble antigens are combated by humoral immunity

44
Q

neutralization

A

antibody covers biologically active portion of microbe or toxin

45
Q

agglutination

A

antibody cross-link cells forming a clump

46
Q

precipitation

A

antibody cross-links circulating particles forming an insoluble antigen-antibody complex

47
Q

complement fixation

A

Fc region of antibody binds complement proteins which activates it

48
Q

opsonization

A

Fc region of antibody binds to receptors of phagocytic cells, triggering phagocytosis

49
Q

activation of NK cells

A

Fc region antibody binds to NK cell triggering release of cytotoxic chemicals

50
Q

IgG

A

major class, 75-85%, most versitile, capable of all Ab actions

51
Q

IgM

A

penatmeter, best at aggulation

52
Q

IgA

A

Dimer, areas exposed to environment(tonsils, mucous membranes) best at neutralization

53
Q

IgD

A

BCR

54
Q

IgE

A

allergy and parasitism; degranulation of basophils and mast cells; chemotactic for eosinophil

55
Q

immunologic memory

A

memory results from the formation of a long-lived army of lymphocytes upon immune activation
adaptive immunity: requires lymphocyte and antigen contact
- lag time between first exposure
- activation leads to the creation of memory cells
At the second response, contact is made rapidly
- pathogen eliminated before symptoms develop
- vaccines help develop memory cells

56
Q

active immunity

A

production of memory wells due to contact with antigen
- direct exposure ( sickness)
- antigen exposure from vaccine

57
Q

passive immunity

A

no production of memory cells; antibodies from another person or animal
- transfer from mother to child across placenta
- transfer of serum containing antibody from person or animal (blood/sweat)

58
Q

hypersensitivities

A

allergy symptoms
- runny nose, watery eyes, red welts, itchy skin, labored breathing, coughing, vomiting, diarrhea, systemic vasodilation, inflammation

59
Q

autoimmune disorders

A

lacks tolerance for specific self antigen; kills own cells
- due to cross activity, altered self antigens, or entering areas with immune privlige

60
Q

HIV and AIDS

A

acquired immunodeficiency disorder
- infects and destroys helper T and resides in body fluids
- transmitted by intercourse, needle sharing, breastfeeding, and placental transmission
HIV tests look for HIV antibodies
- becomes AIDS when helper T cells drop to a certain level
NO CURE

61
Q

Pulmonary ventilation

A

movement of gases between the atmosphere and alveoli (air movement)

62
Q

alveolar gas exchange

A

exchange of gases between alveoli and blood( in pulmonary capillaries)

63
Q

gas transport

A

transport of gases in blood between lungs( systemic capillaries) and systemic cells

64
Q

systemic gas exchange

A

exchange of respiratory gases between the blood and the systemic cells

65
Q

ventilation cycle phases

A

inspiration: brings air into the lungs
expiration: forces air out of the lungs

66
Q

quiet versus forced ventilation

A

quiet: rhythmic breathing at rest
forced: vigorous breathing through exercise

67
Q

volume changes result in

A

changes in pressure gradient between lungs and atmosphere

68
Q

Boyles gas law

A

at a constant temperature, the pressure of gas decreased if volume increases vise versa

69
Q

air pressure gradient exists when

A

pressure is greater in one place more than another

70
Q

volume changes create

A

pressure changes and air flow down its pressure gradient
inspiration: thoracic volume increases, pressure decrease, air goes in
expiration: thoracic volume decreases, pressure increases, air comes out

71
Q

Nervous control of breathing

A

the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex controls voluntary changes in breathing patterns
- hypothalamus increases breathing if body is warm
- limbic system laters breathing rate in response to emotions

72
Q

airflow

A

amount of air moving in and out of the lungs
Depends on:
- pressure gradient established between atmospheric pressure and intrapulmonary pressure
- resistance that occurs due to conditions within the airways

73
Q

pressure gradient

A

the difference in pressure between the atmosphere and intrapulmonary pressure
- if pressure gradient increases, air flow increases
- if resistance increases air flow lessens

74
Q

resistance

A

greater difficulty moving air
May be caused by:
- change in elasticity of the chest or walls
- change in brochiole diameter
- collapse of alveoli

75
Q

compliance

A

ease of expansion in lungs and chest wall

76
Q

tidal volume

A

amount of air per breath (500ml)

77
Q

respiation rate

A

number of breaths per minute (12-20_

78
Q

pulmonary ventilation

A

tidal volume x respiration rate

79
Q

anatomic dead space

A

conducting zone space
- no exchange of respiratory gases
- about 150ml

80
Q

alveolar ventilation

A

amount of air reaching alveolar per minute
( tidal volume - anatomic dead space) x respiration rate = alveolar ventilation
- deep breathing maximizes it

81
Q

spirometer

A

measures respiratory volume
- used to assess respiratory health
Tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, and residual volume all measured by spirometer

82
Q

inspiratory reserve volume

A

amount of air that can forcibly be inhaled beyond tidal volume

83
Q

exspiratory reserve volume

A

amount of air that can forcibly be exhaled beyond tidal volume

84
Q

residual volume

A

amount of air left in the lungs after the most forceful expiration

85
Q

inspiratory capacity

A

tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume

86
Q

functional residual capacity

A

expiratory reserve volume + residual volume
- volume left in the lungs after quiet expiration

87
Q

vital capacity

A

tidal volume + inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes
- the total amount of air a person can exchange through forced breathing

88
Q

total lung capacity

A

sum of all volumes including residual volume
- maximum volume of air that the lungs can hold

89
Q

partial pressure

A

pressure exerted by each gas within a mixture of gases, measured in mmHg
- each gas moves independently down its partial pressure gradient during gas exchange
760mmHg is normal atmospheric pressure

90
Q

Daltons law

A

the total pressure in a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the individual partial pressures

91
Q

partial pressure gradients

A

when one gas in higher in one region than the other
- gas moves from the higher region to the lower regions until pressure becomes equal

92
Q

Henrys law

A

at a given temperature, the solubility of a gas in liquid is dependent upon the partial pressure of gas in the air and solubility coefficient of the gas in the liquid

93
Q

solubility coefficient

A

volume of gas that dissolves in a specified volume of liquid at a given temperature and pressure

94
Q

Alveolar gas exchange
external respiration

A

Oxygen:
Partial pressure in alveoli ia 104mmHg
-PP of blood is 40 mmHg
-oxygen diffuses across respiratory membrane from alveoli into the capillaries
- continues till alveoli and blood pressure equal
CO2:
-alveoli is 40mHg and blood is 45mmHg
- cardon dixoide diffuses from blood to alveoli
- continues until equal

95
Q

systemic gas exchange

A

Oxygen:
- PP in systemic cells is 40mmHg; PP in systemic capillaries is 95mmHg
- continues until blood is 40mmHg
- stays constant
CO2:
- PP in systemic cells is 45mmHg; PP in systemic capillaries is 40mmHg
- diffusion continues until blood is 45 mmHg

96
Q

oxygen transport

A

Bloods ability to transport oxygen
Depends on:
- solubility coefficient of oxygen and presence of hemoglobin

97
Q

CO2 transport

A

Co2 means of transport
- Co2 dissolved in plasma
- as Co2 attached to amine group of goblin portion of hemoglobin
- as bicarbonate dissolved in plasma

98
Q

Conversion of Co2 to HCo2 in systemic capillaries

A

Co2 diffuses into an erythrocyte
- RBC Co2 is joined to H20 to form H2Co3. This is negatively charged it leaves erythrocytes. Cl- moves into the erythrocyte to equalize the charge.

99
Q

Conversion of HC03 to Co2 at pulmonary capillaries

A

HC03 moves into erythrocyte as Cl- moves out
HCo3 recombined with H+ to form H2Co3 which dissociates into Co2 and H20
Co2 diffuses out of the erythrocyte into the plasma and then Co2 moves into an alveolus

100
Q

Hemoglobin as it transport molecule

A

-each can bind up to oxygen molecules
-percent O2 saturation of the hemoglobin is crucial
- saturation increases as Po2 increases
Variables that influence oxygen release :
- temperature (decreases)
- H+ binding to hemoglobin (decrease)
Co2 binding to hemoglobin (increase)
presence of 2,3-BPG (increase)
Increase in oxygen causes a right shift, decreases on left shift

101
Q

Breathing and Exercise

A

while exercising, breathing shows hyperpnea
- depth decreases what rate remains the same
-Po2 and Pco2 constant
- increased cellular respiration compnestated for by a deeper breathing, increased cardiac output and greater blood flow

102
Q

respiratory center stimulated by

A

proprioceptive sensory signals in response to movement
corollary motor output from the cerebral cortex relayed to the respiratory center
conscious anticipation of exercise

anatomy 212 (5 decks)

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