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Anatomy 212 > ANANTOMY EXAM 4 > Flashcards

ANANTOMY EXAM 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Kidneys

A

filter blood and remove waste products
- regulation of inorganic ion levels and maintaining acid-base balance
- production of the release of erythropoietin ( measures oxygen level of blood and secretes erythropoietin w low blood oxygen
- regulates blood pressure
- releases renin which catalyzes and changes blood pressure

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2
Q

Ureters

A

transport urine (kidneys to urinary bladder

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3
Q

Bladder

A

expandable muscular sac; can store up to 1L

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4
Q

Urethra

A

eliminates urine from body

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5
Q

kidney characteristics

A

-concave medial border called the hilum
- lateral border convex
- adrenal gland rests on superior aspect of kidney

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6
Q

Nephron

A

functional filtration unit of the kidney
- consists of renal corpuscle and renal tubule
- all corpusule and most of the tubules in cortex

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7
Q

Types of nephrons

A

cortical and juxtamedullary

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8
Q

Nephron draining

A

Nephron drains into a collecting tubule
- each kidney has thousands (cuboidal shaped cells)
Then empties into collecting ducts
- tall columnar cells
Then into a papillary duct
( both collecting tubules and collecting ducts project toward renal papilla

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9
Q

Juxtaglomerular apparatus

A

helps blood filtrate formation, systemic blood pressure
- primary components: granular cells and macula densa cells

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10
Q

Granular cells

A

modified smooth muscle cells of afferent arteriole
- located near the renal corpuscle
- contract when stimulated by sympathetic or stretch
- synthesize store and release renin

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11
Q

Macula densa

A

Modified epithelial cells in the wall of DCT
- located on the tubule side next to afferent arteriole
- detect changes in NaCl concentration of fluid in the lumen of DCT
- signal granular cells to release renin through paracrine stimulation

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12
Q

Blood flow through the kidney

A

20-25% of resting cardiac output
- the filtrate is formed when blood flows through the glomerulus
- some plasma enters capsular space
Two patterns:
The flow of blood in and out of the kidney
The flow of filtrate, tubular fluid, and urine through the nephron and other urinary structures

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13
Q

Filtrate

A

Blood flows through glomerulus
- both water and solutes filtered from blood plasma
- moves across wall of glomerular capillaries into capsular space
- these forms filtrate

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14
Q

Glomerular filtration

A

movement of substances from the blood within the glomerulus into the capsular space

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15
Q

Tubular reabsorption

A

movement of substances from the tubular fluid back into the blood

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16
Q

Tubular secretion

A

movement of substances from the blood into the tubular fluid

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17
Q

Filtration membrane

A

Blocks:
Endothelium: formed elements
basement membrane: large proteins
filtration slits of visceral layers: small proteins
Accepts:
water, glucose, amino acids, ions, urea, some hormones, vitamin B and C, ketones, and a very small amount of protein

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18
Q

Net filtration pressure

A

the hydrostatic pressure of blood in the glomerulus
- opposing pressures are blood osmotic pressure( oncotic) or fluid pressure in the capsular space
HP ( OP + HP) = NFP

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19
Q

Glomerular filtration pressure

A

The volume of fluid filtered from the glomerular capillaries into the capsular space
- helps kidney control urine production based on physiologic conditions
- influenced by changing the luminal diameter of the afferent arteriole
- influenced by altering the surface area of the filtration membrane
Insinitric- in kidney; extrinsic- outside kidney

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20
Q

Renal autoregulation

A

insintric ability to maintain constant glomerular blood pressure and thus GFR despite changes in systemic arterial pressure

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21
Q

myogenic response
Decreased

A

contraction or relaxation of the smooth muscle of the afferent arterial wall
Decreased blood pressure:
- less stretch of smooth muscle in arteriole
- causes smooth muscle to relax; vessels dilate
- more blood into glomerulus
- compensates for lower systemic pressure
- GFR remains normal

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22
Q

myogenic response
Increased

A

Increased blood pressure:
- more stretch of smooth muscle in arteriole
- causes smooth muscle to contract; vessels constrict
- less blood into glomerulus
- compensates for greater systemic pressure
- GFR remains normal

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23
Q

Decreasing GFR through sympathetic stimulation

A

stimulus: stressor, sympathetic stimulation of kidneys, Granular cells of JG apparatus release renin, increase in angiotensin II production decreased filtration and blood flow- result: decrease in urine production, retain fluid and maintain blood volume

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24
Q

Increasing GFR through atrial natriuretic peptide

A

increase in blood volume or blood pressure, atrial wall stretches, an atrial natriuretic peptide released by heart, renin released from JG apparatus inhibited, decrease in angiotensin II production, increased filtration and increased blood flow into the glomerulus. Result: increased urine, loss of additional fluid, decreased in blood volume.

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25
Q

nutrient reabsorption

A

some substances 100% reabsorbed.
- two major classes: nutrients and filtered plasma proteins
Nutrients are normally completely absorbed in PCT and they all have their own specific transport protein

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26
Q

Glucose reabsorption

A

glucose is transported up its concentration gradient by secondary active transport
it then diffuses down its concentration gradient by facilitated diffusion

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27
Q

Transport of protein

A

most are not freely filtered due to size
-some small and medium appear in filtrate
- small amounts of large proteins too
- transported in tubular fluid in PCT back into the blood
- moved my pinocytosis or receptor-mediated endocytosis across the luminal membrane of an epithelial cell

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28
Q

sodium reabsorption

A

Na moves out K moves in embedded in basolateral membrane
- regulated by hormones near end of tubule
- aldosterone and atrial netriuretic peptide

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29
Q

aldosterone
Sodium

A

produced by the adrenal cortex
- increases Na + water absorption
- water follows by osmosis

30
Q

atrial natriuretic peptide
Sodium

A

inhibits Na reabsorption in collecting ducts
- inhibits the release of aldosterone
- more water and Na in urine
- increases GFR

31
Q

water reabsorption

A

tubule permeability varies along its length
65% reabsorbed in PCT
aquaporins constant number
water follows Na osmosis, obligatory water reabsorption
- 10% absorbed in the nephron loop
- controlled by aldosterone and ADH

32
Q

ADH water reabsorption

A

binds to principal cells
- increases migration of vesicles to membranes
- regulated near end of the tubule
tubular reabsorption- facilitative water reabsorption
- results in a smaller volume of more concentrated urine
- elevated during dehydration ( darker color)

33
Q

potassium movement

A

Reabsorption: 60-80% in PCT; 10-20% in nephron loop

34
Q

Parathyroid hormone

A

regulates the excretion of Ca and PO
- inhibits PO reabsorption in PCT
- stimulates Ca reabsorption in DCT
- less phosphate available
- Ca deposition in done decreased
- Ca in blood levels increased

35
Q

substances with regulated reabsorption

A

Bicarbonates, hydrogen ions, and pH
Ph of urine regulated in collecting tubes
If blood is acidic: HCO3 is reabsorbed into blood, H excreted by A intercalated cells, increase blood pH, decreased urine pH
If alkaline: B intercalated cells active, secrete HCO3, H reabsorbed, lower blood pH, increase in urine pH

36
Q

Bicarbonate and hydrogen ion movement

A

Reabsorption: 80-90% in PCT; 10-20% in nephron loop; regulated HCO and H reabsorbed and secretion in collecting tubules

37
Q

The urinary system prevents the accumulation of

A

metabolic waste( urea, uric acid, and creatinine
hormones and metabolites
foreign substances

38
Q

Concentration gradient

A

present in interstitial fluid surrounding the nephron
- progressively increase in concentration from cortex into medulla
- exerts osmotic pull to move water into the interstitial fluid when ADH is present

39
Q

Urea recycling

A

urea removed from tubular fluid in collecting duct by uniporters
- diffuses back into tubular fluid in thin segment of ascending limb
- remains within tubular fluid until it reaches collecting duct
- urea cycled between collecting duct and nephron loop

40
Q

proximal convoluted tubule

A

Reabsorption: from PCT to blood- 100% of nutrients, majority of water, PO reabsorption is invited by PTH
Secretion: from Blood to PCT- some drugs and nitrogenous wastes

41
Q

nephron loop and vasa recta

A

site of countercurrent multiplier and countercurrent exchange
- continues reabsorption of water and ions begins in PCT
- nephron loops and juxtamedullary nephrons establish interstitial fluid concentration gradient for reabsorption of water induced by ADH

42
Q

distal convoluted tubule, collecting tubule, and collecting duct

A
  • Na reabsorption is regulated by aldosterone and ANP
  • water reabsorption regulated by aldosterone and ADH
  • the amount of K secreted into the tubular fluid is dependent on intercalated and principal cells
  • Ca reabsorption is increased by PTH
  • pH is regulated by intercalated cells
43
Q

Renal plasma clearance

A

assessing kidney function
- measures the volume of plasma cleared of the substance at a given time
- If substance isn’t reabsored or secreted; no change
- if substance is reabsorbed; clearance lower than GFR
- if substance filtered and secreted; clearance is higher than GFR

44
Q

Urine

A

product of filtered processed blood plasma
- sterile unless contaminated with microbes in the kidney or urinary tract
- urinalysis is common and important diagnosis
characteristics: composition, volume, pH, color, turbidity, and smell

45
Q

ureters

A

conduct urine from the kidneys to the bladder
- retroperitoneal
- originate from renal pelvis as it exists hilum of kidney
- enter posterolateral wall in the base of bladder
walls: mucosa, muscularis, and adventitia

46
Q

Micturition

A

expulsion of urine from the bladder
associated with storage reflex and micturition reflex
regulated by sympathetic and parasympathetic

47
Q

storage reflex

A

sympathetic stimulation
- causes relaxation of detrusor to accommodate urine
- stimulates contraction of internal urethral sphincter
external urethral sphincter
- continuously stimulated by pudendal nerve to remain contracted

48
Q

micturition reflex

A

volume of urine 200L - 300L
visceral sensory neurons signaled by baroreceptors
center increases nerve signals down spinal cord
parasympathetic stimulation causes detrusor muscles to contract; internal urethral sphincter relaxes

49
Q

conscious control of urine

A

initiated from cerebral cortex through reduced stimulation by pudendal nerve
- causes relaxation of external urethral sphincter; facilitated by voluntary contraction of abdominal and expiratory muscles ( Valsalva maneuver)
- can empty bladder prior to micturition reflex
contract abdominal muscles and compress bladder; initiates micturition by stimulation of stretch receptors

50
Q

Intracellular fluid

A

fluid within our cells, two-thirds of total body fluid, and is enclosed by a plasma membrane
- allows passage of some but not all substances through it.

51
Q

Extracellular fluid

A

fluid outside our cells, includes interstitial fluid and blood plasma

52
Q

blood plasma

A

extracellular fluid within blood vessels
- separated from the interstitial fluid by capillary vessel
- more permeable than plasma membrane
- similar to interstitial fluid in composition

53
Q

Chloride ion

A

Associated with Na
- follows Na by electrostatic interactions; regulated by the same mechanisms
- amount lost in urine depends on blood plasma Na
Most abundant anion in ECF
Found in the lumen of the stomach as HCI
Participate in Chloride shift within erythrocytes
Obtained in diet from table salt and processed foods
Lost in sweat, stomach secretions and urine

54
Q

Calcium

A

Most abundant electrolyte in bone and teeth
- 99% stored there, moved by pumps out of cell into sarcoplasmic reticulum; prevents binding phosphate
Needed for muscle contraction and neurotransmitter release
Participates in blood clotting
Obatins from dairy sardines and green leafs
Lost in urine, feces, and sweat

55
Q

Phosphate ion

A

most abudant anion in ICF
85% stored in bone and teeth
Component of DNA, RNA, and phospholipids
intracellular and urine buffer
most ionized in blood plasma, rest bind to proteins
Regulated by many of same Ca mechanisms

56
Q

Renin-angiotensin mechanisms

A

Low blood pressure
JG apparatus responds to stimuli
JG apparatus releases renin into blood
Vasoconstriction, increased peripheral and blood pressure; decreased GFR and urine; activation of thirst center/ increases fluid intake; release of aldosterone
Blood pressure increases

57
Q

Actions and effects of antidiuretic hormone

A

Angiotensin II, sensory input from baroreceptors and chemoreceptors detects low pressure
Thirst center activated; increased water reabsorptions, vasoconstriction; increases peripheral resistance and blood pressure
Blood pressure increases

58
Q

Action and effects of aldosterone

A

Angiotensin II, decreased Na and K blood plasma levels show decreased BP
Adrenal cortex responds
Aldosterone released into the blood
Increased K secretion and Na/ water reabsorption
Na maintained; K decreases; Blood volume and pressure maintained

59
Q

Action and effects of ANP

A

Increased stretch of baroreceptors in atria
Atria releases ANP in blood
Vasodailtion: decreases peripheral resistance and BP; Increase GFR filtrate; increases loss of Na and water in urine: decreases release of renin

60
Q

pH

A

Normal is 7.35-7.45
- critical to body functions
- inversely related to H concentration
- adding acid increases H, base reduces it

61
Q

Abnormal increase in respiratory rate

A

causes elevated levels of CO2 to be expired
decreases blood CO2 levels
blood H decreases; pH increases

62
Q

Abnormal decrease of the respiratory rate

A

increases amount of CO2 retained, elevating blood CO2
blood H concentration increases; blood pH decreases

63
Q

acid/base disturbance/ imbalance

A

persistent pH change; life-threatening for any extended period of time
4 categories:
- respiratory acidosis
- respiratory alkalosis
- metabolic acidosis
- metabolic alkalosis

64
Q

Respiratory acidosis

A

most common acid-base disturbance
- due to impaired elimination of CO2 by the respiratory
- Pco2 in arterial blood is above 45 mmHg
- accumulation of CO2 and subsequent increase in H concentration
Possible causes:
- injury to the respiratory center
- disorders of muscles or nerves
- airway obstruction
- decreased gas exchange

65
Q

Respiratory alkalosis

A

due to an increase in respiration; decrease of CO2 and lower H concentration
Possible causes:
- severe anxiety
- the individual is not receiving enough oxygen

66
Q

metabolic acidosis

A

may occur from loss of HCO3 or gain of H (more common)
Occurs when HCO3 levels drop below 22
Possible causes:
- increased production of metabolic acids
- decreased acid elimination
-increased elimination of HCO3(diarrhea)

67
Q

metabolic alkalosis

A

arterial blood levels of HCO3 above 26
- from loss or H or increase of HCO3
Causes:
-vomiting
- large amounts of antacids
- increased loss of acids by kidneys with diuretic overuse

68
Q

Renal compensation
Elevated H

A

Type A intercalated cells
- excrete H and reabsorb HCO3
- occurs in a greater deal than normal
- blood levels of HCO3 are high
Urine pH lower than normal
- urine levels of H in high compensation

69
Q

Renal compensation
Decreased H

A

Type B intercalated cells
- reabsorb H and excrete HCO3
- occurs in greater degree than normal
- blood levels of HCO3 low
- urine pH higher than normal

70
Q

Respiratory compnesation

A

attempts to compensate for metabolic imbalances

Respiratory increases with H increase ( higher Co2 expired, lower blood Pco2)

Respiratory rate decreases with H decrease ( lower Co2 expired, higher blood Co2)
- development of hypoxia
Less effective than renal compensation

Anatomy 212 (5 decks)

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