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BIO 325 - Pathophysiology > Altered Cell Notes > Flashcards

Altered Cell Notes Flashcards

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1
Q

Cellular adaptation is

A

reversible, structural, or functional response

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2
Q

Cells adapt to stressors to maintain homeostasis by

A
  1. Conserving resources
  2. Decreasing or ceasing differentiated functions
  3. Focusing exclusively on their own survival
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3
Q

Cells adapt to increased work demands by changing in

A
  1. Size (atrophy & hypertrophy)
  2. Number (hyperplasia)
  3. Form (metaplasia)
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4
Q

How can hypertrophy or hyperplasia be helpful?

A

Increase organ size so it can function better

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5
Q

How can hypertrophy or hyperplasia be harmful?

A

Increased organ size requires more blood supply. If not available, it becomes ischemic.

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6
Q

Morphologic cell changes

A

Helps a cell recover structure and function in response to a reversible injury

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7
Q

Most significant adaptive/morphologic changes include

A

Atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, and metaplasia

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8
Q

Atrophy

A

Decrease in cellular size caused by aging, disuse or lack of blood supply, hormonal stimulation, or neural stimulation.

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9
Q

What decreases with atrophy?

A

ER, mitochondria, and microfilaments.

Decreases protein synthesis, increased protein catabolism, or both.

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10
Q

How is atrophy advantageous

A

Decreased organelles and size lowers oxygen requirements to survive

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11
Q

Hypertrophy

A

Increase in the size of cells caused by increased work demands or hormonal stimulation

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12
Q

What happens inside the cell with hypertrophy?

A

Increased amounts of proteins, ER, microfilaments, and mitochondria.

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13
Q

Hypertrophy can be classified as

A

Physiologic or pathologic

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14
Q

Hyperplasia

A

Increase in the number of cells caused by an increased rate of cell division.

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15
Q

What is hyperplasia classified as

A

Physiologic or pathologic

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16
Q

Physiologic Hyperplasia

A

Compensatory and hormonal

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17
Q

When does normal hyperplasia start/stop?

A

Stimulated by hormones or the need to replace lost tissues and ends when the stimulus is removed.

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18
Q

What is an example of hyperplasia?

A

Wound repair (increased cell division)
Endometrium/breast: cell death triggers mitosis

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19
Q

Dysplasia/Atypical Hyperplasia

A

Abnormal change in size, shape, and organization of mature tissue cells. Not considered a true adaptational change but rather atypical.

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20
Q

Is dysplasia reversible?

A

Yes, cells can revert to normal after the stimulus causing it is removed

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21
Q

Cervical Dysplasia

A

Mild dysplasia: most regress on their own, most common form.
Moderate & severe: Less likely to self-resolve and have a higher rate of progression to cancer.

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22
Q

Metaplasia

A

Reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another adult cell type

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23
Q

What does metaplasia allow for?

A

Substitution of cells that are better able to survive

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24
Q

What is an example of metaplasia?

A

Chronic smoking causing chronic irritation w/columnar tissue replaced by stratified squamous w/no cilia or mucus

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25
Q

What can cause hypoxia?

A

Free radicals, caustic or toxic chemicals, infectious agents, inflammatory and immune responses, genetic factors, insufficient nutrients, or physical or mechanical trauma

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26
Q

Hypoxia

A

Lack of oxygen to cells

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27
Q

Oxidative Stress

A

Free radicals

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28
Q

Toxic chemicals

A

alcohol, asphyxiants (cyanide)

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29
Q

Physical, mechanical, trauma

A

Blunt/penetrating trauma, temp.

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30
Q

Hypoxemia

A

Low oxygen in the blood

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31
Q

Initial insult in hypoxic injury is usually

A

Ischemia

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32
Q

Ischemia

A

Cessation of blood flow into vessels that supply the cell with oxygen and nutrients

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33
Q

Hypoxemic hypoxia

A

-Most common type
-PaO2 is below normal

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34
Q

Causes of hypoxemic hypoxia

A
  • Alveolar PO2 is reduced - altitude sickness or decompression sickness
  • Diffusion impairment (emphysema)
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35
Q

Ischemic/Stagnant Hypoxia

A

Tissue is not receiving enough oxygen because of decreased perfusion. Cardiac or vascular disorder

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36
Q

Anemic Hypoxia

A

Lungs can be in perfect working condition but the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood is reduced.
-Anemia, or CO poisoning

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37
Q

Histoxic Hypoxia

A

Cells have been poisoned; oxygen gets to the tissue, but the tissue is unable to use the oxygen.
- Cyanide

38
Q

Biochemical themes important to cell injury

A
  1. ATP depletion
  2. Mitochondrial damage
  3. Oxygen and oxygen-derived free radicals
  4. Membrane damage
  5. Protein folding defects
  6. Increased intracellular calcium and loss of calcium steady state.
39
Q

What does hypoxia cause

A

Power failure in the cell & reduced ATP which can cause acute cell swelling

40
Q

What happens to ions when Na+/K+ pump fails

A

IC K+ levels decrease while Na+ and H2O accumulate in the cell.

41
Q

Vacuolization

A

Degeneration by water

42
Q

Oncosis

A

Swelling
Form of cell death due to failure of Na+/K+ pump

43
Q

What is oncosis caused by

A

ischemia

44
Q

Is cell swelling reversible?

A

Yes

45
Q

Movement of water and ions into the cells is associated with

A
  1. Dilation of the ER & other organelles
  2. Increased membrane permeability
  3. Decreased mitochondrial function
46
Q

Without restoration of oxygen

A
  1. Loss of enzymes, proteins, and RNA through hyperpermeable membrane continues
  2. Injury to the lysosomal membranes cause enzymatic digestion of cell components
  3. Leakage of the intracellular enzymes through the permeable membrane
47
Q

Cellular tolerance to hypoxia could involve:

A
  1. Reduction in the metabolic rate
  2. Increased extraction of oxygen from the blood and surrounding tissues.
  3. Adaptations of enzymes to allow metabolism at low partial pressures of oxygen
48
Q

Sequence of events leading to cell death

A

Decreased ATP production, failure of active transport mechanisms, cellular swelling, detachment of ribosomes from ER, cessation of protein synthesis, mitochondrial swelling from calcium accumulation, vacuolation, etc.

49
Q

Oxidative stress

A

An imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species (free radicals) and the ability of the body to counteract, their effects with antioxidants.

50
Q

Reperfusion Injury

A

Restoration of oxygen causing further injury with free radicals.

51
Q

Antioxidants

A

Natural and synthetic molecules that either inhibit the reactions responsible for production of ROS or neutralize ROS.

52
Q

Acute abuse of ethanol/alcohol affects

A

RAS & brainstem, motor & intellectual dysfunction, depresses medulla oblongata decreases respiration

53
Q

Chronic abuse of alcohol

A

Hepatitis and cirrhosis, gastritis & pancreatitis

54
Q

Frostbite causes

A

Vasoconstriction causing hypoxia

55
Q

Heat/burns causes

A

Increased metabolism, denaturing, coagulation of BV

56
Q

Contusion

A

Bleeding into the skin or underlying tissues as the result of a blow.

57
Q

Hematoma

A

Collection of blood in soft tissues or an enclosed space

58
Q

Abrasion

A

Results from the removal of the superficial layers of the skin caused by friction between the skin and injuring object.

59
Q

Laceration

A

Tear or rip resulting when the tensile strength of the skin or tissue is exceeded

60
Q

Incised wound

A

Cut that is longer than it is deep

61
Q

Stab wound

A

Penetrating sharp force injury that is deeper than it is long.

62
Q

Puncture Wound

A

Objects with sharp point rather than sharp edges

63
Q

Penetrating Gunshot Wound

A

Bullet remains

64
Q

Perforating Gunshot Wound

A

Bullet exits

65
Q

Contact range entrance

A

Muzzle on skin, block-back and muzzle imprint

66
Q

Intermediate range entrance

A

Tattooing and stippling

67
Q

Indeterminate range entrance

A

No gunshot residue (GSR)

68
Q

Asphyxial injury

A

Caused by a failure of cells to receive or utilize oxygen

69
Q

4 categories of asphyxial injuries

A
  1. Suffocation
  2. Strangulation
  3. Chemical
  4. Drowning
70
Q

Suffocation Types

A

Choking & traumatic

71
Q

Clinical manifestations of endothelial impairment

A

Edema, hypertension, abnormal vasoconstriction or vasodilation, hypercoagulability

72
Q

Autophagy

A

“Eating of self” and a recycling factor.

73
Q

Necrotic cell death

A

Pathological/unregulated cell death with inflammation.

74
Q

Infarction

A

Tissue death

75
Q

Five major types of necrosis

A
  1. Liquefactive
  2. Coagulative
  3. Caseous
  4. Fat necroses
  5. Gangrenous necrosis
76
Q

Liquefactive necrosis

A

Dead cells digested by own NZ’s - leak out- tissue is walled off from healthy cells as cysts

77
Q

Coagulative necrosis

A

Acidosis denatures proteins and albumin changes from gel to hard & opaque

78
Q

Caseous necrosis

A

Dead cells disintegrate, tissues soft and granular, creates cheesy look

79
Q

Fat necroses

A

Interlobular adipocytes are necrotic and surrounded by inflammation cells

80
Q

Gangrene

A

Large area of necrotic tissue caused by hypoxia and the subsequent bacterial invasion.

81
Q

Dry gangrene

A

Lack of arterial blood supply but venous flow can carry fluid out of tissue

82
Q

Symptoms of dry gangrene

A

Slow progression
Skin shrinks & wrinkles
Black, brown, dry
Usually from coagulative necrosis
Clear line of demarcation
Extremities only

83
Q

Wet gangrene

A

Lack of venous flow lets fluid accumulate in tissue

84
Q

Wet gangrene symptoms/sign

A

Tissue tends to liquefy and becomes infected
Black, moist, cold, swollen, pulseless
Fast progression
No clear line
Due to blocked vein
Location is internal organs or extremities
Foul odor

85
Q

Gas gangrene

A

Caused by infection or injured tissue by anaerobic clostridium bacteria
Death is by shock

86
Q

Frailty

A

Wasting syndrome of aging leaving a person vulnerable to falls, functional decline, disease, and death

87
Q

Somatic death

A

Death of the entire organism

88
Q

Pallor mortis

A

Face becomes sharp and pale as blood drains away
BP in retinal BVs decrease causing muscle tension to decrease and pupils to dilate

89
Q

Algor mortis

A

Reduction in body temp

90
Q

Rigor mortis

A

Happens within 6 hours ends by 36 hours
Acids build up in muscles and interferes with ATP detachment of myosin from actin
12-14 hours

91
Q

Putrefaction

A

24-48 hours after death
Enzymes leak from cells and dissolve tissues and organs
Green discoloration of skin
Skin slips and loosens from underlying tissue
Swelling and bloating

92
Q

Decomposition

A

Organic matter of body is broken down into elemental matter by body’s own enzymes

BIO 325 - Pathophysiology (8 decks)

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