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BIO 325 - Pathophysiology > Altered Cell - CH. 4 > Flashcards

Altered Cell - CH. 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

Cellular Adaptation

A

Reversible

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2
Q

Atrophy

A

Decrease in cell size

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3
Q

Hypertrophy

A

Increase in cell size

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4
Q

Metaplasia

A

Reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another, less mature cell type or a change in cell phenotype.

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5
Q

Dysplasia

A

Deranged cellular growth, not considered a true cellular adaptation but rather atypical hyperplasia.

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6
Q

Physiologic Atrophy

A

Occurs with early development and is a normal event.

ex. thymus in childhood

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7
Q

Pathologic Atrophy

A

Result of decrease in workload, pressure, use, blood supply, nutrition, hormonal stimulation, or neural stimulation.

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8
Q

Disuse Atrophy

A

Occurs with prolonged bedrest or immobilization.
Also known as pathologic atrophy

Ex. arm in a cast

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9
Q

Atrophic cells contain less

A

ER, mitochondria, and myofilaments.

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10
Q

Mechanisms of atrophy

A

Decrease in protein synthesis, increase in protein degradation, or both.

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11
Q

Autophagic Vacuoles

A

Contain cellular debris and hydrolytic enzymes that degrade substances into simple units.

Vacuoles help ensure no uncontrolled destruction.

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12
Q

Lipofuscin

A

Yellow-brown pigmented granules; lipid-containing residue that persists after lysosomal destruction.

Become age spots in older adults

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13
Q

How does hypertrophy present clinically?

A

Muscle enlargement

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14
Q

Physiologic Hypertrophy

A

Result of increased demand, stimulation by hormones, and growth factors.

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15
Q

Pathologic Hypertrophy

A

Result of chronic hemodynamic overload (ex. hypertension or heart valve dysfunction)

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16
Q

What is pathologic hypertrophy associated with?

A

Increased interstitial fibrosis, cell death, and abnormal cardiac function.

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17
Q

Compensatory hyperplasia

A

Enables organs to regenerate

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18
Q

Callus

A

Thickening of the skin, considered compensatory hyperplasia

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19
Q

Hormonal Hyperplasia

A

Occurs in organs that respond to endocrine hormonal stimulation

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20
Q

Pathologic Hormonal Hyperplasia

A

Abnormal proliferation of normal cells, usually in response to excessive hormonal stimulation or to the action of growth factors on target cells.

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21
Q

Dysplasia is described as “low grade” or “ high grade” based on

A

The degree of variation from normal.

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22
Q

Why is metaplasia thought to develop?

A

The new cell type might be better suited to withstand an adverse environment. However, the change is usually not beneficial.

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23
Q

Metaplasia results from

A

A reprogramming of stem cells present in most epithelia or of undifferentiated mesenchymal (tissue from embryonic mesoderm) cells

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24
Q

Irreversible cell injury

A

Severe vacuolization of the mitochondria and Ca++ moves into the cell.

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25
Q

Hypoxia

A

Lack of sufficient oxygen within cells

Most common cause of cell injury

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26
Q

Ischemia

A

Reduced supply of blood and therefore oxygen

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27
Q

What does hypoxia negatively impact?

A

Differentiation, angiogenesis, proliferation, erythropoiesis, and overall cell viability.

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28
Q

Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)

A

Reactive molecules from molecular oxygen formed as a natural oxidant species in cells during mitochondrial respiration and energy generation.

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29
Q

Anoxia

A

Total lack of oxygen

30
Q

What happens when the Na+/K+ pump fails due to ischemia?

A

Ca++ and Na+ accumulate in the cell. K+ diffuses out of the cell. Na+ and H2O can freely enter the cell causing swelling of the cell. The cell is lysed.

31
Q

Vacuolation

A

Formation of vacuoles
Occurs when Na+/K+ pump is broken and oxygen is not restored.

32
Q

Ischemia-Reperfusion (reoxygenation) injury

A

Restoration of blood flow and oxygen to ischemic tissues that can help cells injured reversibly recover but also cause cell death. Can create free oxygen radicals that cause destruction.

33
Q

Potential mechanisms for reperfusion injury

A

Oxidative stress, increased intracellular calcium concentration, inflammation, and complement activation

34
Q

Oxidative Stress

A

Injury caused by ROS

35
Q

Free radical

A

Electrically uncharged atom, or group of atoms, which has an unpaired electron that makes the molecule unstable.

36
Q

Mechanisms for generation of free radicals

A

Reduction-oxidation reactions, absorption of extreme energy sources, enzymatic metabolism of exogenous chemicals or drugs, transition metals, or NO acting as an intermediate in reactions.

37
Q

Potential damaging effects of free radicals

A

Lipid peroxidation, protein alteration, DNA damage, and mitochondrial effects.

38
Q

Xenobiotics

A

Compounds and chemicals that have toxic, mutagenic, or carcinogenic properties.

39
Q

Biotransformation

A

Enzymatic reactions convert one chemical into a less toxic or nontoxic compound

40
Q

Antioxidants

A

Molecules that inhibit the oxidation of other molecules, thereby preventing the formation of free radicals.

Often terminate a chain reaction that would’ve resulted in free radical formation.

41
Q

Ambient particulate matter

A

Particulate matter less than or equal to 2.5 micrometers in aerodynamic matter

42
Q

Ozone

A

Special form of oxygen in a deep layer in the stratosphere.

43
Q

Asphyxial Injuries

A

Failure of cells to receive or use oxygen

44
Q

Suffocation

A

Process of dying as a result of lack of oxygen

45
Q

Strangulation

A

Compression of the blood vessels and air passages resulting from external pressure on the neck.

46
Q

Ligature strangulation

A

Does not require suspension

47
Q

Manual strangulation

A

Assailant’s hands compress the neck of the victim to the point where death by asphyxiation occurs

48
Q

Dry-lung drowning

A

Vagal-mediated laryngospasms closing off the airway

49
Q

Cellular accumulations

A

Also known as infiltration
Can occur with both sustained cell injury and with normal but inefficient cell function.

50
Q

Two categories of substances that can produce infiltrations

A

Normal cellular substances - excess water, protein, lipids, carbohydrates
Abnormal cellular substances - endogenous and exogeneous substances

51
Q

Four mechanisms for accumulations

A
  1. Insufficient removal of the normal substance because of altered configuration or transport
  2. Accumulation of abnormal substance because of defects in protein folding, transport, or abnormal degradation.
  3. Inadequate metabolism of an endogenous substance, usually because of a lack of a lysosomal enzyme.
  4. Harmful exogenous materials
52
Q

Cellular Swelling

A

Most common degenerative change
Result from a shift of extracellular water into the cells

53
Q

Oncosis/vacuoler degeneration

A

Cytoplasmic swelling

54
Q

Steatosis

A

Fatty changes of the liver, accumulation of intracellular lipids

55
Q

Mechanisms for lipid accumulation in the liver

A
  1. Increased movement of free fatty acids into the liver
  2. Failure to convert fatty acids to phospholipids results in conversion into triglycerides
  3. Increased synthesis of triglycerides from fatty acids
  4. Decreased synthesis of apoproteins
  5. Failure of lipids to bind with apoproteins to form lipoproteins
  6. Failure of mechanisms that transport lipoproteins out of the cell.
  7. Direct damage to the ER by free radicals released by alcohol’s toxic effects
56
Q

Hemoproteins

A

Endogenous pigments including cytochromes (hemoglobin and oxidative enzymes)

57
Q

Hemosiderin

A

Intracellular, yellow-brown pigment

58
Q

Hemosiderosis

A

Transient, localized deposition of iron that usually does not result in tissue damage

59
Q

Dystrophic Calcification

A

Calcification occurring in dying or necrotic tissues

Commonly noted in chronic pulmonary tuberculosis

60
Q

Psammoma bodies

A

Laminated, calcified structures. Concentric and commonly found within tumors

61
Q

Metastatic calcification

A

Mineral deposits that occur in undamaged, normal tissues secondary to hypercalcemia

62
Q

Urate

A

Major end product of purine catabolism

63
Q

Necrosis

A

Form of cell destruction characterized by rapid loss of plasma membrane structure, swelling of organelles, mitochondrial dysfunction, and the lack of typical features of apoptosis.

64
Q

Autolysis

A

A process of cellular self-digestion

65
Q

Karyolysis

A

Enzymatic hydrolysis of nuclear chromatin

66
Q

Pyknosis

A

Nucleus shrinks into a small, dense mass of genetic material

67
Q

Karyorrhexis

A

Fragmentation of the nucleus into small particles or “nuclear dust”

68
Q

Coagulative necrosis

A

Result of protein denaturation, where albumin is transformed into a firm opaque substance called an infarct

69
Q

Infarct

A

Firm opaque substance (formerly albumin)

70
Q

Liquefactive necrosis

A

Commonly results from ischemic injury to neurons and glial cells. Cysts form and are often triggered by infection

BIO 325 - Pathophysiology (8 decks)

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