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APP Reflex test questions > ALL APP TEST Q SEPT-April > Flashcards

ALL APP TEST Q SEPT-April Flashcards

1
Q

What are lymphatic vessels

A

System of blind ended vessels that sits btw arterial and venous.
It takes back the 15% plasma that leaves the capillaries that venules don’t take back

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2
Q

3 main components of the fluid that comes out of the capillaries to bathe cells

A

O2, h2o and nutrients

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3
Q

What % of fluid comes out of capillaries gets back to the heart via the lymph vessels

A

15%

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4
Q

How does the rest get back to the heart

A

Via the venules and veins

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5
Q

Roughly how many lymph nodes are there

A

600

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6
Q

Why can large molecules and fat get into the lymph vessels but not capillaries

A

B/c the gap in the lymph vessel walls are bigger and overlap

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7
Q

Where does the lymph system drain back into the cardiovascular system

A

R&L subclavian vein

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8
Q

Which subclavian vein drains all the left and part of the right side of the body

A

Left

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9
Q

What are the two pumps that help get lymph fluid back up to the heart

A

Skeletal and respiratory pump

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10
Q

What are pluripotent stem cells found

A

Bone marrow

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11
Q

Which kind of cells are educated in the thymus gland

A

T cells

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12
Q

Why do nodes swell when you get an infection

A

B &T cells multiply

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13
Q

What does the spleen contain

A

RBCs , WBCs, CT (connective Tissue)

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14
Q

What are tonsils

A

Collection of WBC’s

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15
Q

What are the 3 main functions of the lymphatic system

A

Drainage 15%
Immune response
Transport dietary lipids ADEK & Fat soluble vitamins

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16
Q

What are the 2 types of resistance to disease (immunity)

A 
Specific (adaptive) &
Non specific (innate)
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17
Q

What are the two main type of WBC’s involved in specific immunity

A

B&T

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18
Q

What are the first and second line of defence in innate immunity

A

Preventing things entering the body and dealing with them after entry

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19
Q

What are interferons and what do they do

A

Proteins produced by WBC’s that destroy viruses

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20
Q

What are the 4 signs of inflammation

A

Redness, swelling, heat, pain

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21
Q

Why is fever a useful response to pathogen invasion i.e what effect is it supposed to have

A

Raise the body temp of host to disrupt the pathogens homeostasis

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22
Q

How do WBC’s recognise invaders

A

From the alien molecules on their cell surfaces

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23
Q

What molecules generate an immune response called

A

Antigens

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24
Q

What are self molecules

A

Molecules that all your cells produce that are unique to you

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25
Q

What are the molecules that B cells make called, how else could you describe them

A

Antibodies, guided missiles

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26
Q

What’s one way of describing how T cells attack antigens

A

Cell to cell combat

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27
Q

What is an allergic reaction?

A

When a person is overreactive to an antigen to which most pp are tolerant too. May produce an inappropriate immune reaction

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28
Q

What is the endocrine system made up of

A

Clusters of epithelial cells that secrete hormones (messenger molecules)

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29
Q

What is the endocrine system for and how does it do what it does?

A

Maintain homeostasis. Messenger molecules (hormones) make cells do things that keep conditions relatively constant when things around are changing

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30
Q

Why don’t all cells respond to all hormones

A

B/c only certain cells have receptors for certain hormones

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31
Q

What happens when hormones reach the target tissue cells

A

They change what those cells are doing

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32
Q

Which other system, besides the endocrine system, maintain homeostasis

A

ANS autonomic nervous system and nervous system

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33
Q

What are the differences btw the nervous and endocrine system (work)

A

Neurotransmitters act locally and very quickly for a very short time
Hormones act over a wider area and for longer

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34
Q

What 3 types of stimulus can make glands secrete hormones

A

Nervous signal,
Chemical change in blood
Other hormones

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35
Q

How is the secretion of most hormones controlled and what is the one exception to this

A

Negative feedback

Oxytocin is positive feedback

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36
Q

Which two major systems does the hypothalamus control

A

NS and endocrine

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37
Q

Everything that happens in the body is due to to things?

A

Shape and change of atoms and molecules

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38
Q

Which two things are responsible for the movement of atoms and molecules

A

Energy and heat

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39
Q

Proteins have a positive charge, electron negative and neutrons have no charge but the same mass as protons - are all part of this statement true

A

Yes

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40
Q

Adrenal cortex releases what hormones (3)

A

Mineralocorticoids , aldosterone and androgens

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41
Q

6 characteristics of living things

A

MRMGRD

Metabolism 
Responsiveness 
Movement 
Growth
Reproduction 
Differentiattion
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42
Q

7 lvs of organisation of the body

A 
Whole person 
System 
Organs
Tissues
Cellular 
Molecular 
Atom
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43
Q

2 things responsible for the movement of atoms and molecules

A

Heat , energy

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44
Q

2 things that happen in the body due to two things

A

Shape n change or atoms and molecules

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45
Q

90% of us are made of three atoms

A

Carbon, oxygen and hydrogen

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46
Q

Starting with helium how are other atoms made

A

Adding another proton, neutron and electron each time to creat a new atom

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47
Q

What’s the most important law of the universe

A

Atoms like to have a full outer orbit and will do what they can to get it

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48
Q

What is an ion

A

A atom or grp of atoms with a positive or negative charge

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49
Q

What are the bonds that hold the atoms together

A

Covalent bond

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50
Q

What is a polar molecule

A

Molecular with a positive charge at one end and negative charge at the other end

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51
Q

Why is the chemistry of Carbon called organic chemistry

A

Living things are made up largely from carbon which form bonds with other atoms.
Organic is associated with living things

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52
Q

Why is chemistry of living things based on Carbon

A

It’s the common atom in most living things
The bonds it makes is stable under normal conditions but weak enough to be broken by enzymes so new chemical combinations can be made

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53
Q

Would massive molecules exist in nature if there were no living things to assemble them

A

No

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54
Q

How are the massive molecules of living things assembled

A

Cells make enzymes hat can bring atoms close enough together for them to react with each other and join together via covalent bonding

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55
Q

Where are the instructions as to which molecule to assemble held

A

DNA

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56
Q

Why are carbohydrate molecules so useful as a source of energy

A

Easy to break down into sugar to use as energy

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57
Q

What is the main sugar used by animals

A

Carbohydrates

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58
Q

Most lipids are hydrophobic- what does this mean

A

Water hating

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59
Q

What are the 2 main nucleic acids and where are they mostly found in the cell

A

Nuclei of the cell

DNA n RNA

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60
Q

What is the term used for maintaining the body’s condition relatively constant

A

Homeostasis

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61
Q

What is it about proteins that allows them to act as enzymes

A

Various shapes that allows other molecules and atoms to fit into them to react to create a new molecule

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62
Q

What do you think is the opposite of hydrophobic

A

Hydrophilic - water loves
Philic = loves
Hydro = water

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63
Q

4 reasons why lipids are useful to cells

A

Break down to release energy
Store energy
Insulate
Forms the membrane around cells

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64
Q

Which vitamins are lipids

A

A E D K

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65
Q

What are the raw materials proteins are made from

A

Amino acid

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66
Q

How many diff amino acids are there in the body

A

20

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67
Q

What is polypeptide

A

Large protein that consist of 2000 amino acids joined together

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68
Q

What is (probably) the most important job that proteins do

A

Act as enzymes and made new molecules

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69
Q

What are the two main parts of the nervous system

A

Autonomic and somatic

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70
Q

What does the somatic nervous system deal with

A

Voluntary muscle.

Skeletal , muscle

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71
Q

What does the autonomic nervous system deal with

A

Involuntary system

- internal organs , smooth muscle, blood vessels

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72
Q

Do somatic and autonomic nervous system travel in the same nerves

A

Yes

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73
Q

What does the nervous system do

A

Monitor internal and external response and made a response accordingly

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74
Q

Name two places where a decision can be made in the nervous system

A

Cortex (brain) , along spinal cord and gut

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75
Q

What are nerve cells (neurones) stimulates by

A

Change and force in environment

Change in energy

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76
Q

7 somatic sensation

A 
TV CHPPP
Touch
Vibration
Cold
Heat
Pressure
Pain
Proprioception (awareness of where your body is in space)
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77
Q

Why are we able to detect different types of sensation

A

Thru diff types of receptors in end of nerve cells

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78
Q

List 5 special senses

A 
Vision 
Taste 
Smell
Hearing
Balance
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79
Q

What is the spinal cord largely made up of

A

Nerve cells , cross connection and supporting tissue

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80
Q

Which kind of neurone go up the spinal cord and which sort go down the spinal cord

A

Sensory - up

Motor - down

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81
Q

How many neurones are there in the Sensory pathway to the cortex of the brain

A

3

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82
Q

How many neurones I. The somatic motor pathway from the cortex of the brain to the muscle

A

2

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83
Q

Which side of the brain are sensations of the right side of the body perceived

A

Left side

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84
Q

Which side of the brain controls voluntary movement on the left side of the body

A

Right

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85
Q

What does efferent mean

A

Out going (motor nerves are efferent)

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86
Q

What does afferent mean

A

Incoming (sensory neurones )

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87
Q

What type of neurones go into the back of the spinal cord

A

Sensory

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88
Q

What type of neurones go out the front of the spinal cord

A

Motor (also go out the side)

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89
Q

What is the dorsal root ganglion

A

A grp of nerves clustered together

Where the bodies of the sensory neurones are located

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90
Q

What does ganglion mean

A

Swelling

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91
Q

A nerve can be a metre long

A

True

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92
Q

All the plexi are formed from the ventral primary division of the peripheral nerves

A

True

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93
Q

What is a plexus

A

A network of similar cells that wk to create one performance

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94
Q

Where in the body is the brachial plexus

A

Behind the clavical

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95
Q

What are the 5 main nerves that emerge from the brachial plexus

A

Musculocutanerous, ulnar, axillary, median and radial

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96
Q

Where in the brain are most of the sensations of the body perceived

A

Cortex

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97
Q

How many pairs of spinal peripheral nerves are there

A

31 pairs (from c1-s5)

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98
Q

How many cranial nerves are there

A

12

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99
Q

What are the 2 main geographical ( where located in the body) parts of the somatic nervous system

A

Spinal and cranial nerves

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100
Q

Another name for somatic nervous system

A

Voluntary nervous system (skeletal muscle , skin)

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101
Q

Another name for autonomic

A

Involuntary nervous system (smooth muscles, organs, glands, blood vessels)

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102
Q

Which part of the nervous system deals with cardiac muscle, glands, smooth muscle and blood vessels

A

Autonomic NS

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103
Q

Can somatic and autonomic Neurones travel in the same nerve

A

Y

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104
Q

Why does the autonomic nervous system want to maintain a constant internal environment

A

So the body chemistry/ physiology proceeds as it should and maintain a healthy working environment

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105
Q

Do some organs/ tissues have both somatic and autonomic nerves attached to them - eg

A

Yes, breathing - can choose to hold breath (voluntary-somatic) to a point but if we go to far the autonomic neurones will take over (involuntary) and makes us breath

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106
Q

Under what conditions is the parasympathetic NS dominant

A

When we are in a anabolic , unstressed, restful state

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107
Q

From what part of the spinal cord do sympathetic motor neurones emerge

A

T1-L2

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108
Q

Do sympathetic motor neurones get to all 31 spinal nerves

A

Yes, via sympathetic chain

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109
Q

If the sympathetic NS emerges from the middle of the spinal cord where does the parasympathetic NS emerge from

A

Top and bottom of the spinal cord

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110
Q

Specifically where do parasympathetic motor neurones emerge from

A

Cranial nerves 3,7,9,10

Sacral nerves 2,3,4

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111
Q

In the parasympathetic NS, are the post ganglionic neurones very long or very short

A

Short (the join (or ganglia) are in the target organs and this short)

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112
Q

In the parasympathetic NS, up which cranial

Nerve do the physiological and stretch sensations go

A

Cranial nerve 9 &10 (10 is the vagus nerve) and pelvic splash Nic nerves S2,3,4

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113
Q

In the parasympathetic NS through which sympathetic structure do the pain sensations go to get to the spinal cord

A

Go straight thru the sympathetic chain be T1 - L2. Connects with second neurones, leading to hypothalamus

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114
Q

What is the proper term for ‘the brain of the gut’

A

Enteric NS

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115
Q

Does the enteric NS always act entirely independently of the autonomic NS

A

No, but much of the network operate independently

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116
Q

What is the point of the respiratory system

A

To breath in o2
So we get o2 into the body and into blood
So it can get into all cells to break bonds and release energy

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117
Q

What are the 3 steps in respiration

A

Breathing , Internal and external respiration

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118
Q

What is cellular respiration and where does it happen

A

Cells use 02 to break down molecule bonds and burning of food to release energy (ATP)

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119
Q

What are the tonsils and what are they for

A

Stop entry of pathogens into the body.

A collection of white blood cells at back of throat

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120
Q

What stops food going down thto trachea

A

Epiglottis or floppy skin

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121
Q

Going down , what does the pharynx turn into

A

Trachea or osphagus

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122
Q

Where is the thyroid gland

A

Around the larynx

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123
Q

What is trachea lined with

A

Mucus and epithelia cells

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124
Q

What does the trachea split into

A

Left or right bronchi

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125
Q

How many lines are there in the right lung and in left

A

Right 3

Left 2

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126
Q

What structure lies at the end of the terminal bronchioles

A

Alveolies

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127
Q

What is a pneumothorax and what causes it

A

Inner layer of lung membrane that pulls away from the outer layer
Collapsing lung

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128
Q

How thick are alveoli

A

One cell thick

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129
Q

Are there WBC’s inside alveoli

A

Yes

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130
Q

What are the 2 main kind of fibres in the wall of the alveoli

A

Elastic and reticular (branching)

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131
Q

Why do you need water to line the alveoli

A

Helps with transfusion of 02 to the blood stream. O2 diffuses into a gas so can be picked up by RBC

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132
Q

Which 2 gases diffuse into and out of the alveoli

A

Co2 ,02

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133
Q

What happens to the diaphragm on inspiration

A

Goes down

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134
Q

Which nerve supplies the diaphragm

A

Phrenic nerve

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135
Q

What is eupnea

A

Normal

Shallow breathing

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136
Q

What kind of molecule is haemoglobin and what will happen to it if conditions change too much

A

Protein molecule

Loss 3D shape

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137
Q

What does chronic cigarette smoking do to lungs

A

Turns the lungs black and damages the bronchioles, alveoli and paralyses the hair

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138
Q

How can smoke contribute to cancer anywhere in the body

A

Smoke contains carcinogens that get into lung cells and anywhere in the body

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139
Q

What % of cases of lung cancer are due to smoking

A

85%

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140
Q

What is the cause of TB

A

Bacterium m tuberculoi

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141
Q

What is pleurisy

A

Inflammation of the pleuris

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142
Q

What does the cardiovascular system do

A

Delivers o2 and nutrients to all cells, releases energy , transports co2

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143
Q

What % of the blood leaks out of capillary returns via the venules

A

85%

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144
Q

What are the 3 components of formed elements in blood

A

White blood cells

Red blood cells and platelets

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145
Q

How long to RBCs live

A

90-120day

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146
Q

Why can’t RBCs repair themselves

A

They contain no nuclei or organelles. So can’t repair or reproduce
They are just a carries of co2 and o2

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147
Q

Which digestive enzymes is made from haemoglobin

A

Bile

148
Q

What is anaemia

A

Lack of red blood cells so reduced o2 carrying capacity

149
Q

What is jaundice and what causes it

A

Breakdown of too many RBCs and build up of bilirubin in blood and liver

150
Q

What are wbcs involved in

A

Immune system

151
Q

How do wbc escape from blood vessels

A

They can change shape to squeeze thru gaps be the blood vessel walls

152
Q

What do platelets (thrombocytes) do

A

Help plug holes in blood cells walls and cause clots

153
Q

Why do clots often form in veins

A

Blood slows down and going up hill

154
Q

What does it mean to say that the circulation of the blood is a double circulation

A

Blood goes around the heart twice

Heart to lungs and back again (for oxygenation) then heart to digestion and body

155
Q

What is the name of the blood vessels that carry blood from the heart to the lungs

A

Pulmonary artery

156
Q

What is the name of the blood vessel that carry blood from the lungs to the heart

A

Pulmonary vein

157
Q

What are the 2 main blood vessels bringing deoxygenated blood back to the heart

A

Superior and inferior vena cava

158
Q

What is the main blood vessel sending oxygenated blood around the body

A

Aorta

159
Q

Name 2 things that may cause the blood vessels to become narrower

A

Congenital fault and s Eros is (hardening of blood vessels)

160
Q

What is oedema

A

Swelling of tissues

161
Q

What is an ectopic pacemaker

A

An excitable grp of heart cells that causes a prem heart beat outside the normal SA nose

162
Q

Give 2 names for an abnormal heart rhythm

A

Arrhythmia and dysthymia

163
Q

The first thing the heart does is supply it self with 02- How

A

Coronary arteries that sit on the heart and outside

164
Q

What is the 1 risk factor if coronary heart disease

A

Smoking

165
Q

What is angina lector is

A

Temporary lack of o2 to heart

166
Q

What is aneurysm

A

Bulge in heart wall - swelling

167
Q

What is a heart attach

A

Heart muscle cell death due to lack of 02 supply

168
Q

What may cause a heart murmur

A

Leaking heart valves, blood rushing back in from one chamber to another

169
Q

Which part of the nervous system connects with the blood vessel

A

Sympathetic (autonomic nervous system )

170
Q

What stops blood in veins flowing backwards

A

Valves

171
Q

What is DVT

A

Blood clot in leg

172
Q

How does blood back to the heart

A

Heart contraction

Respiratory pump and skeletal muscle pump

173
Q

What are the 2 main factors affecting effecting blood pressure

A

Stress and obesity

174
Q

What is essential hypertension

A

Higher blood pressure due to no other factor

Life style choices

175
Q

About 90% of you is made up of 3 type of atoms

A

Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

176
Q

of what 95% is made up of just one type of atom

A

Carbon

177
Q

What is the smallest and simplest atom

A

Hydrogen

178
Q

Starting with helium how do u make up other atoms

A

Keep adding one proton, Neuton and electron

179
Q

What actually are the bonds that holds atoms together

A

Covalent bonds

180
Q

What is the main sugar used by animals

A

Glucose

181
Q

How are massive molecules of living things assembled

A

Cells make enzymes that can bring atoms close enough together for them to react with each other and join together via covalent bonding

182
Q

4 words that summarise why lipids are useful to cells

A

Store energy
Fat storage
energy usage
Cell membrane formation

183
Q

What is the most important job that proteins do

A

Act as and help create enzymes to form chemical reaction

184
Q

What is it about proteins that allows them to act as enzymes

A

Complex 3D shape and structure

185
Q

What are stem cells

A

Cells that have haunted their development

186
Q

What are the two things cells have to go

A

Carry on living

Make protein enzymes that makes something happen in the body

187
Q

What are the 4 types of tissues

A

Epithelial
Muscle
Connective
Nervous

188
Q

What is a tissue

A

A grp of cells that usually come from the same embryonic cell that are grped together to perform a specialised activity

189
Q

What does epithelial tissue do

A

PAS

Protects, absorbs, secrete and binds

190
Q

Does epithelial tissue have a good blood supply

A

No

191
Q

Does epithelial tissue have a high division rate

A

Yes

192
Q

What type of tissue are glands made up off

A

Epithelial and connective Tissue

193
Q

What are the 3 types of muscle tissue

A

Smooth , skeletal, cardiac

194
Q

Which of the 3 types of muscle are voluntary and which are involuntary

A

Skeletal muscle

Smooth muscle -involuntary

195
Q

Where in the brain are most of the sensations of the body actually perceived

A

Cortex

196
Q

How many pairs of spinal peripheral nerves are there

A

31

197
Q

How many cranial nerves are there

A

12

198
Q

What are the two main functional parts of the nervous system (job they do)

A

Somatic and automatic

199
Q

What are the two main geographical (location in body) parts of the somatic NS

A

Central and peripheral NS

200
Q

Give one other word could you use for somatic NS

A

Voluntary NS

201
Q

Another word for autonomic NS

A

Involuntary or visceral NS

202
Q

Which part of the NS deals with cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, glands and blood vessels

A

Autonomic

203
Q

So somatic and autonomic neurones sometimes travel in the same nerve

A

Yes

204
Q

Why does the autonomic NS want to maintain a constant internal environment

A

To maintain homeostasis so body can function, repair and rejuvenate

205
Q

Do some organs / tissue have both somatic and autonomic nerves attached to them

A

Yes, ie. lung, diaphragm

206
Q

Under what conditions is the parasympathetic NS dominant

A

Stress free environment- rest and digest

207
Q

Under what condition is the sympathetic NS dominant

A

Under stress - fight and flight

208
Q

What do catabolic reactions

Do in the body

A

Release energy- break down large molecules into smaller ones

209
Q

From what part of the spinal cord do sympathetic motor neurones emerge

A

T1 - L2

210
Q

Do sympathetic motor neurones get to all 31 spinal nerves

A

Sympathetic chain

211
Q

If the sympathetic NS emerges from the middle of the spinal cord , where does the parasympathetic NS emerge from

A

Above and below T1 and L2

212
Q

Specifically where do parasympathetic motor neurones emerge from

A

C3,7,9,10

S2,3,4

213
Q

In the parasympathetic NS where are the joins (synapses) btw the pre ganglionic motor neurones and the post ganglionic motor neurones

A

In the organs and vy small

214
Q

In the parasympathetic NS are the post ganglionic neurones very long or very short

A

Vy short

215
Q

What is the point of digestion

A

To break down food molecules
So can get into cells of gut wall , into vessels so can get to all cells of body
To provide energy in cells by breaking bonds and raw materials used by the cells to make itself bigger to make hormones

216
Q

What’s the difference btw digestion and absorption

A

Digestion- breakdown of bonds into smaller molecules

Absorption - molecules being absorbed into cells to be used as energy

217
Q

Why is the oesophagus lined with mucus’s and stratified epithelium

A

Mucus for lubricantion
Stratified squamous epithelium cells - top layer is scraped off by food so are replaced all the time. They are flat layers of cells - easy to replace

218
Q

What causes heartburn

A

Stomach acid entering the oesophagus when leaked up

219
Q

What sort of molecules does the stomach mainly digest

A

Proteins

220
Q

What protects the stomach from the acid it secrete

A

Mucus

221
Q

What is the most common cause of an ulcer

A

Bacteria in the stomach that degrades stomach lining

222
Q

Where are bile salts made and what do they do

A

Emulsifies fat abs make small intestine alkaline

223
Q

State 4 functions of liver

A

Make bile
Secretes enzymes and bile into small intestine
Absorption of toxins
Forms no toxic urea

224
Q

What are the 2 main jobs of the large intestine

A

Reabsorption of salts and water

225
Q

What are haemorrhoids

A

Capillaries protruding out of the anus

226
Q

What causes diverticulitis

A

With age the muscles lining the cell walls weaken and faecle matter gets trapped in pouches and bacteria builds up causing infection and inflammation

227
Q

What is the diff btw an osteoblasts and osteocytes

A

Immature / mature bone cells

228
Q

Note part of the long bone

Epiphysis , diaphysis, epiphyseal, metaphysics, compact bone, spongy bone, medullary cavity, periosteum

A

Top of bone, middle part, growth plate in bone, casing, bone marrow, inside the bone, outer thin covering on the bone

229
Q

What is the matrix of the bone - material and %

A

25% protein fibres,
25% water
50% crystal mineral salts

230
Q

What is a osteoclast

A

A cell that dissolves bone

231
Q

What are the 2 main minerals in bone

A

Calcium sulphate and calcium phosphate

232
Q

Where does the hardness come from in bone and where does the strength and flexibility come from

A

Protein fibres and mineral salts

233
Q

What is the epiphyseal plate

A

Growth line. Line of hyaline cartilage in the bone from which the bone grows

234
Q

Why do we stop growing at adolescence

A

Epiphyseal plate ossified

235
Q

What causes the epiphyseal plate to ossify

A

Hormones, particularly oestrogen

236
Q

What are the 4 main types of cells in red bone marrow

A

RBCs, wbcs, fibroblasts, adipocytes

237
Q

Give two possible causes of gigantism

A

Oversecretion of human growth hormones by the pituitary gland
Lack of oestrogen / receptors so plate doesn’t ossify

238
Q

Give 3 possible causes if shorter stature

A

Undersecretio. Of human growth hormone -pituitary

Or thyroid hormone or genetic

239
Q

What happens in bone remodelling?

A

Osteoclasts dissolve bone and osteoblasts simultaneously rebuild it

240
Q

What is an open fracture

A

Bone protrudes out of skin

241
Q

What is a comminuted fracture

A

Splinters

242
Q

What is a green stick fracture

A

One side broken other side bends

243
Q

What is an impact fracture

A

One side driven into other side

244
Q

What is a Potts fracture

A

Fracture of far end of fibula

245
Q

What is a colles fracture

A

Fracture of far end of radius and displaced posteriorly

246
Q

What is a stress fracture

A

Microscopic fissures in bone due to replicated stress eg jumping

247
Q

Where is 99% of calcium stored

A

In bone

248
Q

Which hormone causes osteoclast activity to increase resulting in less calcium in bone and more in blood

A

Parathyroid

249
Q

Which hormone causes osteoclast activity to decrease resulting in more calcium in bone and less in blood

A

Calcitonin

250
Q

What is the effect of mechanical stress on bone

A

Makes it lay down more bone

251
Q

Why is bone resorption more marked in women

A

Because of the reduction in sex hormones after menopause

252
Q

What is the condition called in which bone resorption is greater than bone deposit

A

Osteoporosis

253
Q

What causes rickets

A

Failure of the bone to calcify

254
Q

Another name for adult rickets

A

Osteomalacia

255
Q

What causes osteoarthritis

A

Mechanical stress wearing down cartilage

256
Q

What causes Rheumatoid arthritis

A

Autoimmune inflammation- wbc attacking own cells

257
Q

Can bone get an infection

A

Yes - osteomyelitis

258
Q

What causes gout

A

Sodium irate crystals

259
Q

What do the kidneys do

A

Filter the harmful waste products from the blood to form urine which is then excreted from the body. At the same time, the concentration of important molecules in the blood, inc water, are adjusted to meet the current needs of the body

260
Q

Which 2 hormones do the kidneys release

A

Erythropoietin and calcitrol

261
Q

Where does the urea and ammonia excreted from the kidney s come from

A

Break down if amino acids (protein)

262
Q

Where does the bilirubin in urea come from

A

Break down of haemoglobins in RBCs

263
Q

Where does the uric acid in urea come from

A

Breakdown of dna and rna

264
Q

Which artery abs vein supply’s the kidney

A

Renal

265
Q

What are the 3 stages of urine formation

A

Glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion

266
Q

What is the functional unit of the kidney

A

Nephron

267
Q

Which part of the nervous system is the detrusor or muscle connected to

A

Autonomic

268
Q

What is the urethra

A

A small tube leading from the bladder to the outside

269
Q

They which gland does the ureter pass in the male

A

Postate

270
Q

Which part of the NS are the internal urethral sphincter and external urethral sphincter connected

A

Autonomic and somatic

271
Q

What is micturition

A

Urination

272
Q

What is the inability to control micturition called

A

Incontinence

273
Q

What are the three types of muscle

A

Skeletal, smooth and cardiac

274
Q

What is the name for the mechanism by which muscle moves

A

Sliding filament

275
Q

What are the 2 main proteins involved in the sliding filament mechanisms

A

Actin, myosin

276
Q

What causes the sarcoplasmic reticulum in a muscle cell to open, releasing calcium ions which make the filaments slide and the muscle contract

A

Nerve impulse

277
Q

What is the name of the place where a nerve cell attaches to a muscle cell

A

Neuromuscular junction

278
Q

What is the genetic name for the type of molecule that the nerve cell releases that causes the muscle to contract, one example

A

Neurotransmitter, acetylcholine

279
Q

What gives muscle their tone

A

Firing of muscle fibres

280
Q

If you cut the nerve supply to a muscle what happens to it’s tone?

A

Goes flaccid

281
Q

Where does the energy in the ATPThat powers the muscle come from

A

Energy bonds in food molecules

282
Q

What is the cells preferred molecule for splitting energy

A

Glucose

283
Q

What is the molecule to which the energy from the food is transferred from storage?
What does this turn that molecule into

A

ADP , ATP

284
Q

The bonds in food molecules are broken by burning in oxygen inside the cell. Where does the o2 come from

A

Breathed into lungs, transferred to blood and then into cells

Myoglobin in muscle cells

285
Q

What are the two types of muscle contraction

A

Isotonic and isometric

286
Q

Which type of muscle contraction does not involve a change of length

A

Isometric

287
Q

Give 2 reasons why muscle becomes shorter and stiffer if we don’t stretch

A

Less elastic and more inelastic fibres laid down in connective muscle

Cross bridge form between actin and myosin

288
Q

What is another name for the voluntary part of the NS

A

Somatic

289
Q

What is another name for the involuntary part of the NS

A

Automatic

290
Q

What are the 2 parts of the autonomic NS

A

Parasympathetic and sympathetic

291
Q

Why are there no stripes in smooth muscle

A

Bc the actin and myosin are not arranged in parallel rows as in striped muscles

292
Q

In smooth muscle contraction slower and longer lasting than skeletal muscle contraction

A

Yes

293
Q

What’s the big thing about cardiac muscle

A

Auto rhythmic

294
Q

With age, muscle tissue is replaced by 2 other type of tissue, what are they

A

Fibrous CT and adipose CT

295
Q

Which end of a muscle is the origin

A

The end that attaches to a stationary bone

296
Q

Which end of a muscle is the insertion

A

The end that attaches to a moving bone

297
Q

How does a muscle attach to a bone

A

Via a tendon

298
Q

What is the prime mover and what is another name for it

A

The muscle that brings about the desired action, agonist

299
Q

What is the name of the muscle that relaxes as the agonist contracts

A

Antagonist

300
Q

Name an agonist and antagonist pair

A

Biceps brachial, triceps

301
Q

Which muscle helps the agonist work more efficiently by reducing unnecessary movement called

A

Synergists

302
Q

When does a spasm become a cramp

A

When it’s painful

303
Q

What is a tic

A

Spasmodic, invol twitching, often of eye or face muscle

304
Q

What is a tremor

A

Rhythmic, invol. Purposeless contraction, causing quivering / shaking

305
Q

What is fasciculation

A

Invol. Brief muscle twitches visible under skin, irreg, assoc with Ms and ALS

306
Q

What is fibrillation

A

Spontaneous, irregular contractor single muscle fibre under skin only visible with emg

307
Q

What is myasthenia gravis and what causes it

A

Weak muscles caused by autoantibodies blocking receptor sites on muscle

308
Q

What is the diff between asexual and sexual reproduction and what’s the advantage of sexual

A

Sexual - combining the genes of two parents
Asexual - one cell splitting into two

Advantage - mix genes - may produce better advantage in life

309
Q

Where are the sperm produced

A

Tested

310
Q

What is sperm production called

A

Spermatogenesis

311
Q

What is the purpose of the scrotum

A

Keep sperm cool

312
Q

What’s the really diff thing that happens in spermatogenesis

A

The chromosomes reduce from 46 to 23

313
Q

What do the chromosomes contain

A

DNA

314
Q

How long may sperm last in the female reproductive tract

A

48 hrs

315
Q

Why do sperm cells have a lot of mitochondrial

A

To produce energy as they have lots of movement

316
Q

Which cells secrete the hormone testosterone

A

Leydig cells

317
Q

Which 2 hormone together stimulate sperm production in the testes

A

Testosterone and fhs

318
Q

Where does fertilisation usually occur

A

Fallopian tubes

319
Q

What is the endometrium and what does it do

A

Mucus membrane that feed the developing embryo

320
Q

Where should the fertilised egg implant and develops

A

Uterus

321
Q

What are the mammary glands

A

Modified sweat glands that produce milk

322
Q

What is oogenesis

A

How one cell in the ovary develops into an egg

323
Q

Which 4 hormones are released from the Graafian follicle (later corpus Luteum)

A

Progesterone, oestrogen, relaxin, inhibin

324
Q

Approximately how many eggs mature and ovulate in a lifetime

A

About 400

325
Q

What is the endocrine system made up of

A

Clusters of epithelial cells that secrete hormones (messengers molecules)

326
Q

What is the endocrine system for and how does it do what it does

A

Maintain homeostasis- the messenger molecules make cells do things that keep conditions relatively constant when things around are changing

327
Q

Why are the glands of the endocrine system called ductless glands

A

Bc they don’t release their hormones into ducts - they secrete into the tissue and enter the blood vessels

328
Q

Why don’t all cells respond to all hormones

A

Bc only certain cells have receptors for certain hormones

329
Q

What happens when hormones reach the target tissue cells

A

They change what those cells are doing

330
Q

What are the 2 ways by which hormones can change what a cell is doing

A

Fat soluble hormones switch on the gene(s) in the DNA that contain the ‘instructions ‘ for the ‘job’ water soluble bind to a receptor and act as enzymes that make the cell do its job

331
Q

Which other system, besides the endocrine system, maintain homeostasis

A

NS (ANS)

332
Q

What are the diff between the way the nervous and endocrine system work

A

Neurotransmitter act very locally and act very quickly for a vy short time hormones act over a wide area, work slowly and last for a long time

333
Q

What 3 types of stimulus can make glands secrete hormones

A

Nervous signal, Chen changes in blood, other hormones

334
Q

How is the secretion of most hormones controlled and what is the one exception to this

A

Negative feedback , oxytocin (positive feedback)

335
Q

What do most of the hormones release by the hypothalamus do

A

Make the hypothalamus release it’s hormones

336
Q

How do the hormones secreted by the hypothalamus get to the anterior pituitary

A

Hypothalamus portal system

337
Q

How do secretions of the hypothalamus get to the posterior pituitary

A

Neurones that start in the hypothalamus reach down into the posterior pituitary and release neurotransmitter, not hormones, which are stored there

338
Q

Which two hormones are released from the posterior pituitary

A

ADH and oxytocin

339
Q

What is the stimulus that causes human growth hormones to be released from the anterior pituitary gland

A

Low blood sugar

340
Q

What effect does too much human growth hormones have on children and adult

A

Gigantism and acromegaly

341
Q

What effect does too little growth hormones have on children

A

Pituitary dwarfism

342
Q

Where is the thyroid gland

A

Around the larynx

343
Q

Which two hormones does the thyroid release

A

T3 and T4

344
Q

What is the main effects of T3 and T3 on body cells

A

Allows them to access more oxygen so they can produce more energy

345
Q

List 5 symptoms of hyperthyroidism

A 
Increase heart rate, 
fatigue, 
weight loss, 
heat intolerance, 
Xs sweating
346
Q

What is the main hormones secretes by the testes abs what does it do

A

Testosterone

Regulate sperm production, stimulates production and maintenance of male characteristics eg beard growth, deepening of voice

347
Q

What are the two main hormones produced by the ovaries

A

Oestrogen and progesterone

348
Q

What are the 4 main things the female sex hormones do

A

Regulate menstrual cycle, maintain pregnancy, prepare mammary glands for lactation
Establish and maintain the female body shape

349
Q

What does prolactin do in women

A

Prolactin imitates and maintain milk production by the mammary glands

350
Q

Where do the glucocorticoid hormones come from and what is their overall effect

A

Adrenal cortex

Mobilising energy, responding to stress

351
Q

What causes Cushing syndrome

A

Over-secretion of glucocorticoids

352
Q

What is the main effect of melanin stimulating hormone on skin

A

Causes special skin cells called melanocytes to produce the pigment melanin which protects cell DNA from UV light damage

353
Q

What are the 2 main things oxytocin does

A

Increase smooth muscle contraction in uterus to eject baby, milk production and ejection

354
Q

What does anti diuretic hormone do

A

Causes the kidneys to retain more water and decrease urine volume

355
Q

What effect does reduced ADH have

A

Causes kidneys to reabsorb water, leading to xs dilute urine, dehydration, extreme thirst

356
Q

Where are the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline manufactured

A

Hypothalamus

357
Q

Under what circumstances are adrenal medulla hormones (adrenaline and noradrenaline released and which NS are they associated with

A

Stress and sympathetic

358
Q

From which cells is calcitonin released and where are these cells located

A

Para follicular, thyroid

359
Q

How does calcitonin reduce blood calcium

A

Reduces activity of osteoclast

360
Q

Where are the 4 parathyroid glands

A

Thyroid gland

361
Q

How does parathyroid hormones increase blood calcium

A

Increase the number and activity of osteoclasts

362
Q

Where would you find beta cells, what do they secrete, and what is the effect

A

Beta cells secrete insulin which reduces blood glucose

363
Q

Very briefly what’s the diff between type 1 and 2 diabetes

A

Type 1 - absence or shortage of insulin

2 - cells resistant to insulin bc of life style

364
Q

Where would you find alpha cells, what do they secrete and what is the effect

A

Alpha cells secrete glucagon , increases blood glucose

365
Q

What is the main mineralocorticoid hormone secretes by the adrenal cortex and what are the 3 main things it helps regulate

A

Aldosterone, blood pressure, blood volume, acidity

366
Q

Where is the pineal gland what does it release and what effect does it have

A

Roof is 3rd ventricle, melatonin , regulate sleepiness

APP Reflex test questions (9 decks)

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