ALL APP TEST Q SEPT-April Flashcards
What are lymphatic vessels
System of blind ended vessels that sits btw arterial and venous.
It takes back the 15% plasma that leaves the capillaries that venules don’t take back
3 main components of the fluid that comes out of the capillaries to bathe cells
O2, h2o and nutrients
What % of fluid comes out of capillaries gets back to the heart via the lymph vessels
15%
How does the rest get back to the heart
Via the venules and veins
Roughly how many lymph nodes are there
600
Why can large molecules and fat get into the lymph vessels but not capillaries
B/c the gap in the lymph vessel walls are bigger and overlap
Where does the lymph system drain back into the cardiovascular system
R&L subclavian vein
Which subclavian vein drains all the left and part of the right side of the body
Left
What are the two pumps that help get lymph fluid back up to the heart
Skeletal and respiratory pump
What are pluripotent stem cells found
Bone marrow
Which kind of cells are educated in the thymus gland
T cells
Why do nodes swell when you get an infection
B &T cells multiply
What does the spleen contain
RBCs , WBCs, CT (connective Tissue)
What are tonsils
Collection of WBC’s
What are the 3 main functions of the lymphatic system
Drainage 15%
Immune response
Transport dietary lipids ADEK & Fat soluble vitamins
What are the 2 types of resistance to disease (immunity)
Specific (adaptive) & Non specific (innate)
What are the two main type of WBC’s involved in specific immunity
B&T
What are the first and second line of defence in innate immunity
Preventing things entering the body and dealing with them after entry
What are interferons and what do they do
Proteins produced by WBC’s that destroy viruses
What are the 4 signs of inflammation
Redness, swelling, heat, pain
Why is fever a useful response to pathogen invasion i.e what effect is it supposed to have
Raise the body temp of host to disrupt the pathogens homeostasis
How do WBC’s recognise invaders
From the alien molecules on their cell surfaces
What molecules generate an immune response called
Antigens
What are self molecules
Molecules that all your cells produce that are unique to you
What are the molecules that B cells make called, how else could you describe them
Antibodies, guided missiles
What’s one way of describing how T cells attack antigens
Cell to cell combat
What is an allergic reaction?
When a person is overreactive to an antigen to which most pp are tolerant too. May produce an inappropriate immune reaction
What is the endocrine system made up of
Clusters of epithelial cells that secrete hormones (messenger molecules)
What is the endocrine system for and how does it do what it does?
Maintain homeostasis. Messenger molecules (hormones) make cells do things that keep conditions relatively constant when things around are changing
Why don’t all cells respond to all hormones
B/c only certain cells have receptors for certain hormones
What happens when hormones reach the target tissue cells
They change what those cells are doing
Which other system, besides the endocrine system, maintain homeostasis
ANS autonomic nervous system and nervous system
What are the differences btw the nervous and endocrine system (work)
Neurotransmitters act locally and very quickly for a very short time
Hormones act over a wider area and for longer
What 3 types of stimulus can make glands secrete hormones
Nervous signal,
Chemical change in blood
Other hormones
How is the secretion of most hormones controlled and what is the one exception to this
Negative feedback
Oxytocin is positive feedback
Which two major systems does the hypothalamus control
NS and endocrine
Everything that happens in the body is due to to things?
Shape and change of atoms and molecules
Which two things are responsible for the movement of atoms and molecules
Energy and heat
Proteins have a positive charge, electron negative and neutrons have no charge but the same mass as protons - are all part of this statement true
Yes
Adrenal cortex releases what hormones (3)
Mineralocorticoids , aldosterone and androgens
6 characteristics of living things
MRMGRD
Metabolism Responsiveness Movement Growth Reproduction Differentiattion
7 lvs of organisation of the body
Whole person System Organs Tissues Cellular Molecular Atom
2 things responsible for the movement of atoms and molecules
Heat , energy
2 things that happen in the body due to two things
Shape n change or atoms and molecules
90% of us are made of three atoms
Carbon, oxygen and hydrogen
Starting with helium how are other atoms made
Adding another proton, neutron and electron each time to creat a new atom
What’s the most important law of the universe
Atoms like to have a full outer orbit and will do what they can to get it
What is an ion
A atom or grp of atoms with a positive or negative charge
What are the bonds that hold the atoms together
Covalent bond
What is a polar molecule
Molecular with a positive charge at one end and negative charge at the other end
Why is the chemistry of Carbon called organic chemistry
Living things are made up largely from carbon which form bonds with other atoms.
Organic is associated with living things
Why is chemistry of living things based on Carbon
It’s the common atom in most living things
The bonds it makes is stable under normal conditions but weak enough to be broken by enzymes so new chemical combinations can be made
Would massive molecules exist in nature if there were no living things to assemble them
No
How are the massive molecules of living things assembled
Cells make enzymes hat can bring atoms close enough together for them to react with each other and join together via covalent bonding
Where are the instructions as to which molecule to assemble held
DNA
Why are carbohydrate molecules so useful as a source of energy
Easy to break down into sugar to use as energy
What is the main sugar used by animals
Carbohydrates
Most lipids are hydrophobic- what does this mean
Water hating
What are the 2 main nucleic acids and where are they mostly found in the cell
Nuclei of the cell
DNA n RNA
What is the term used for maintaining the body’s condition relatively constant
Homeostasis
What is it about proteins that allows them to act as enzymes
Various shapes that allows other molecules and atoms to fit into them to react to create a new molecule
What do you think is the opposite of hydrophobic
Hydrophilic - water loves
Philic = loves
Hydro = water
4 reasons why lipids are useful to cells
Break down to release energy
Store energy
Insulate
Forms the membrane around cells
Which vitamins are lipids
A E D K
What are the raw materials proteins are made from
Amino acid
How many diff amino acids are there in the body
20
What is polypeptide
Large protein that consist of 2000 amino acids joined together
What is (probably) the most important job that proteins do
Act as enzymes and made new molecules
What are the two main parts of the nervous system
Autonomic and somatic
What does the somatic nervous system deal with
Voluntary muscle.
Skeletal , muscle
What does the autonomic nervous system deal with
Involuntary system
- internal organs , smooth muscle, blood vessels
Do somatic and autonomic nervous system travel in the same nerves
Yes
What does the nervous system do
Monitor internal and external response and made a response accordingly
Name two places where a decision can be made in the nervous system
Cortex (brain) , along spinal cord and gut
What are nerve cells (neurones) stimulates by
Change and force in environment
Change in energy
7 somatic sensation
TV CHPPP Touch Vibration Cold Heat Pressure Pain Proprioception (awareness of where your body is in space)
Why are we able to detect different types of sensation
Thru diff types of receptors in end of nerve cells
List 5 special senses
Vision Taste Smell Hearing Balance
What is the spinal cord largely made up of
Nerve cells , cross connection and supporting tissue
Which kind of neurone go up the spinal cord and which sort go down the spinal cord
Sensory - up
Motor - down
How many neurones are there in the Sensory pathway to the cortex of the brain
3
How many neurones I. The somatic motor pathway from the cortex of the brain to the muscle
2
Which side of the brain are sensations of the right side of the body perceived
Left side
Which side of the brain controls voluntary movement on the left side of the body
Right
What does efferent mean
Out going (motor nerves are efferent)
What does afferent mean
Incoming (sensory neurones )
What type of neurones go into the back of the spinal cord
Sensory
What type of neurones go out the front of the spinal cord
Motor (also go out the side)
What is the dorsal root ganglion
A grp of nerves clustered together
Where the bodies of the sensory neurones are located
What does ganglion mean
Swelling
A nerve can be a metre long
True
All the plexi are formed from the ventral primary division of the peripheral nerves
True
What is a plexus
A network of similar cells that wk to create one performance
Where in the body is the brachial plexus
Behind the clavical
What are the 5 main nerves that emerge from the brachial plexus
Musculocutanerous, ulnar, axillary, median and radial
Where in the brain are most of the sensations of the body perceived
Cortex
How many pairs of spinal peripheral nerves are there
31 pairs (from c1-s5)
How many cranial nerves are there
12
What are the 2 main geographical ( where located in the body) parts of the somatic nervous system
Spinal and cranial nerves
Another name for somatic nervous system
Voluntary nervous system (skeletal muscle , skin)
Another name for autonomic
Involuntary nervous system (smooth muscles, organs, glands, blood vessels)
Which part of the nervous system deals with cardiac muscle, glands, smooth muscle and blood vessels
Autonomic NS
Can somatic and autonomic Neurones travel in the same nerve
Y
Why does the autonomic nervous system want to maintain a constant internal environment
So the body chemistry/ physiology proceeds as it should and maintain a healthy working environment
Do some organs/ tissues have both somatic and autonomic nerves attached to them - eg
Yes, breathing - can choose to hold breath (voluntary-somatic) to a point but if we go to far the autonomic neurones will take over (involuntary) and makes us breath
Under what conditions is the parasympathetic NS dominant
When we are in a anabolic , unstressed, restful state
From what part of the spinal cord do sympathetic motor neurones emerge
T1-L2
Do sympathetic motor neurones get to all 31 spinal nerves
Yes, via sympathetic chain
If the sympathetic NS emerges from the middle of the spinal cord where does the parasympathetic NS emerge from
Top and bottom of the spinal cord
Specifically where do parasympathetic motor neurones emerge from
Cranial nerves 3,7,9,10
Sacral nerves 2,3,4
In the parasympathetic NS, are the post ganglionic neurones very long or very short
Short (the join (or ganglia) are in the target organs and this short)
In the parasympathetic NS, up which cranial
Nerve do the physiological and stretch sensations go
Cranial nerve 9 &10 (10 is the vagus nerve) and pelvic splash Nic nerves S2,3,4
In the parasympathetic NS through which sympathetic structure do the pain sensations go to get to the spinal cord
Go straight thru the sympathetic chain be T1 - L2. Connects with second neurones, leading to hypothalamus
What is the proper term for ‘the brain of the gut’
Enteric NS
Does the enteric NS always act entirely independently of the autonomic NS
No, but much of the network operate independently
What is the point of the respiratory system
To breath in o2
So we get o2 into the body and into blood
So it can get into all cells to break bonds and release energy
What are the 3 steps in respiration
Breathing , Internal and external respiration
What is cellular respiration and where does it happen
Cells use 02 to break down molecule bonds and burning of food to release energy (ATP)
What are the tonsils and what are they for
Stop entry of pathogens into the body.
A collection of white blood cells at back of throat
What stops food going down thto trachea
Epiglottis or floppy skin
Going down , what does the pharynx turn into
Trachea or osphagus
Where is the thyroid gland
Around the larynx
What is trachea lined with
Mucus and epithelia cells
What does the trachea split into
Left or right bronchi
How many lines are there in the right lung and in left
Right 3
Left 2
What structure lies at the end of the terminal bronchioles
Alveolies
What is a pneumothorax and what causes it
Inner layer of lung membrane that pulls away from the outer layer
Collapsing lung
How thick are alveoli
One cell thick
Are there WBC’s inside alveoli
Yes
What are the 2 main kind of fibres in the wall of the alveoli
Elastic and reticular (branching)
Why do you need water to line the alveoli
Helps with transfusion of 02 to the blood stream. O2 diffuses into a gas so can be picked up by RBC
Which 2 gases diffuse into and out of the alveoli
Co2 ,02
What happens to the diaphragm on inspiration
Goes down
Which nerve supplies the diaphragm
Phrenic nerve
What is eupnea
Normal
Shallow breathing
What kind of molecule is haemoglobin and what will happen to it if conditions change too much
Protein molecule
Loss 3D shape
What does chronic cigarette smoking do to lungs
Turns the lungs black and damages the bronchioles, alveoli and paralyses the hair
How can smoke contribute to cancer anywhere in the body
Smoke contains carcinogens that get into lung cells and anywhere in the body
What % of cases of lung cancer are due to smoking
85%
What is the cause of TB
Bacterium m tuberculoi
What is pleurisy
Inflammation of the pleuris
What does the cardiovascular system do
Delivers o2 and nutrients to all cells, releases energy , transports co2
What % of the blood leaks out of capillary returns via the venules
85%
What are the 3 components of formed elements in blood
White blood cells
Red blood cells and platelets
How long to RBCs live
90-120day
Why can’t RBCs repair themselves
They contain no nuclei or organelles. So can’t repair or reproduce
They are just a carries of co2 and o2
Which digestive enzymes is made from haemoglobin
Bile
What is anaemia
Lack of red blood cells so reduced o2 carrying capacity
What is jaundice and what causes it
Breakdown of too many RBCs and build up of bilirubin in blood and liver
What are wbcs involved in
Immune system
How do wbc escape from blood vessels
They can change shape to squeeze thru gaps be the blood vessel walls
What do platelets (thrombocytes) do
Help plug holes in blood cells walls and cause clots
Why do clots often form in veins
Blood slows down and going up hill
What does it mean to say that the circulation of the blood is a double circulation
Blood goes around the heart twice
Heart to lungs and back again (for oxygenation) then heart to digestion and body
What is the name of the blood vessels that carry blood from the heart to the lungs
Pulmonary artery
What is the name of the blood vessel that carry blood from the lungs to the heart
Pulmonary vein
What are the 2 main blood vessels bringing deoxygenated blood back to the heart
Superior and inferior vena cava
What is the main blood vessel sending oxygenated blood around the body
Aorta
Name 2 things that may cause the blood vessels to become narrower
Congenital fault and s Eros is (hardening of blood vessels)
What is oedema
Swelling of tissues
What is an ectopic pacemaker
An excitable grp of heart cells that causes a prem heart beat outside the normal SA nose
Give 2 names for an abnormal heart rhythm
Arrhythmia and dysthymia
The first thing the heart does is supply it self with 02- How
Coronary arteries that sit on the heart and outside
What is the 1 risk factor if coronary heart disease
Smoking
What is angina lector is
Temporary lack of o2 to heart
What is aneurysm
Bulge in heart wall - swelling
What is a heart attach
Heart muscle cell death due to lack of 02 supply
What may cause a heart murmur
Leaking heart valves, blood rushing back in from one chamber to another
Which part of the nervous system connects with the blood vessel
Sympathetic (autonomic nervous system )
What stops blood in veins flowing backwards
Valves
What is DVT
Blood clot in leg
How does blood back to the heart
Heart contraction
Respiratory pump and skeletal muscle pump
What are the 2 main factors affecting effecting blood pressure
Stress and obesity
What is essential hypertension
Higher blood pressure due to no other factor
Life style choices
About 90% of you is made up of 3 type of atoms
Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
of what 95% is made up of just one type of atom
Carbon
What is the smallest and simplest atom
Hydrogen
Starting with helium how do u make up other atoms
Keep adding one proton, Neuton and electron
What actually are the bonds that holds atoms together
Covalent bonds
What is the main sugar used by animals
Glucose
How are massive molecules of living things assembled
Cells make enzymes that can bring atoms close enough together for them to react with each other and join together via covalent bonding
4 words that summarise why lipids are useful to cells
Store energy
Fat storage
energy usage
Cell membrane formation
What is the most important job that proteins do
Act as and help create enzymes to form chemical reaction
What is it about proteins that allows them to act as enzymes
Complex 3D shape and structure
What are stem cells
Cells that have haunted their development
What are the two things cells have to go
Carry on living
Make protein enzymes that makes something happen in the body
What are the 4 types of tissues
Epithelial
Muscle
Connective
Nervous
What is a tissue
A grp of cells that usually come from the same embryonic cell that are grped together to perform a specialised activity
What does epithelial tissue do
PAS
Protects, absorbs, secrete and binds
Does epithelial tissue have a good blood supply
No
Does epithelial tissue have a high division rate
Yes
What type of tissue are glands made up off
Epithelial and connective Tissue
What are the 3 types of muscle tissue
Smooth , skeletal, cardiac
Which of the 3 types of muscle are voluntary and which are involuntary
Skeletal muscle
Smooth muscle -involuntary
Where in the brain are most of the sensations of the body actually perceived
Cortex
How many pairs of spinal peripheral nerves are there
31
How many cranial nerves are there
12
What are the two main functional parts of the nervous system (job they do)
Somatic and automatic
What are the two main geographical (location in body) parts of the somatic NS
Central and peripheral NS
Give one other word could you use for somatic NS
Voluntary NS
Another word for autonomic NS
Involuntary or visceral NS
Which part of the NS deals with cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, glands and blood vessels
Autonomic
So somatic and autonomic neurones sometimes travel in the same nerve
Yes
Why does the autonomic NS want to maintain a constant internal environment
To maintain homeostasis so body can function, repair and rejuvenate
Do some organs / tissue have both somatic and autonomic nerves attached to them
Yes, ie. lung, diaphragm
Under what conditions is the parasympathetic NS dominant
Stress free environment- rest and digest
Under what condition is the sympathetic NS dominant
Under stress - fight and flight
What do catabolic reactions
Do in the body
Release energy- break down large molecules into smaller ones
From what part of the spinal cord do sympathetic motor neurones emerge
T1 - L2
Do sympathetic motor neurones get to all 31 spinal nerves
Sympathetic chain
If the sympathetic NS emerges from the middle of the spinal cord , where does the parasympathetic NS emerge from
Above and below T1 and L2
Specifically where do parasympathetic motor neurones emerge from
C3,7,9,10
S2,3,4
In the parasympathetic NS where are the joins (synapses) btw the pre ganglionic motor neurones and the post ganglionic motor neurones
In the organs and vy small
In the parasympathetic NS are the post ganglionic neurones very long or very short
Vy short
What is the point of digestion
To break down food molecules
So can get into cells of gut wall , into vessels so can get to all cells of body
To provide energy in cells by breaking bonds and raw materials used by the cells to make itself bigger to make hormones
What’s the difference btw digestion and absorption
Digestion- breakdown of bonds into smaller molecules
Absorption - molecules being absorbed into cells to be used as energy
Why is the oesophagus lined with mucus’s and stratified epithelium
Mucus for lubricantion
Stratified squamous epithelium cells - top layer is scraped off by food so are replaced all the time. They are flat layers of cells - easy to replace
What causes heartburn
Stomach acid entering the oesophagus when leaked up
What sort of molecules does the stomach mainly digest
Proteins
What protects the stomach from the acid it secrete
Mucus
What is the most common cause of an ulcer
Bacteria in the stomach that degrades stomach lining
Where are bile salts made and what do they do
Emulsifies fat abs make small intestine alkaline
State 4 functions of liver
Make bile
Secretes enzymes and bile into small intestine
Absorption of toxins
Forms no toxic urea
What are the 2 main jobs of the large intestine
Reabsorption of salts and water
What are haemorrhoids
Capillaries protruding out of the anus
What causes diverticulitis
With age the muscles lining the cell walls weaken and faecle matter gets trapped in pouches and bacteria builds up causing infection and inflammation
What is the diff btw an osteoblasts and osteocytes
Immature / mature bone cells
Note part of the long bone
Epiphysis , diaphysis, epiphyseal, metaphysics, compact bone, spongy bone, medullary cavity, periosteum
Top of bone, middle part, growth plate in bone, casing, bone marrow, inside the bone, outer thin covering on the bone
What is the matrix of the bone - material and %
25% protein fibres,
25% water
50% crystal mineral salts
What is a osteoclast
A cell that dissolves bone
What are the 2 main minerals in bone
Calcium sulphate and calcium phosphate
Where does the hardness come from in bone and where does the strength and flexibility come from
Protein fibres and mineral salts
What is the epiphyseal plate
Growth line. Line of hyaline cartilage in the bone from which the bone grows
Why do we stop growing at adolescence
Epiphyseal plate ossified
What causes the epiphyseal plate to ossify
Hormones, particularly oestrogen
What are the 4 main types of cells in red bone marrow
RBCs, wbcs, fibroblasts, adipocytes
Give two possible causes of gigantism
Oversecretion of human growth hormones by the pituitary gland
Lack of oestrogen / receptors so plate doesn’t ossify
Give 3 possible causes if shorter stature
Undersecretio. Of human growth hormone -pituitary
Or thyroid hormone or genetic
What happens in bone remodelling?
Osteoclasts dissolve bone and osteoblasts simultaneously rebuild it
What is an open fracture
Bone protrudes out of skin
What is a comminuted fracture
Splinters
What is a green stick fracture
One side broken other side bends
What is an impact fracture
One side driven into other side
What is a Potts fracture
Fracture of far end of fibula
What is a colles fracture
Fracture of far end of radius and displaced posteriorly
What is a stress fracture
Microscopic fissures in bone due to replicated stress eg jumping
Where is 99% of calcium stored
In bone
Which hormone causes osteoclast activity to increase resulting in less calcium in bone and more in blood
Parathyroid
Which hormone causes osteoclast activity to decrease resulting in more calcium in bone and less in blood
Calcitonin
What is the effect of mechanical stress on bone
Makes it lay down more bone
Why is bone resorption more marked in women
Because of the reduction in sex hormones after menopause
What is the condition called in which bone resorption is greater than bone deposit
Osteoporosis
What causes rickets
Failure of the bone to calcify
Another name for adult rickets
Osteomalacia
What causes osteoarthritis
Mechanical stress wearing down cartilage
What causes Rheumatoid arthritis
Autoimmune inflammation- wbc attacking own cells
Can bone get an infection
Yes - osteomyelitis
What causes gout
Sodium irate crystals
What do the kidneys do
Filter the harmful waste products from the blood to form urine which is then excreted from the body. At the same time, the concentration of important molecules in the blood, inc water, are adjusted to meet the current needs of the body
Which 2 hormones do the kidneys release
Erythropoietin and calcitrol
Where does the urea and ammonia excreted from the kidney s come from
Break down if amino acids (protein)
Where does the bilirubin in urea come from
Break down of haemoglobins in RBCs
Where does the uric acid in urea come from
Breakdown of dna and rna
Which artery abs vein supply’s the kidney
Renal
What are the 3 stages of urine formation
Glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion
What is the functional unit of the kidney
Nephron
Which part of the nervous system is the detrusor or muscle connected to
Autonomic
What is the urethra
A small tube leading from the bladder to the outside
They which gland does the ureter pass in the male
Postate
Which part of the NS are the internal urethral sphincter and external urethral sphincter connected
Autonomic and somatic
What is micturition
Urination
What is the inability to control micturition called
Incontinence
What are the three types of muscle
Skeletal, smooth and cardiac
What is the name for the mechanism by which muscle moves
Sliding filament
What are the 2 main proteins involved in the sliding filament mechanisms
Actin, myosin
What causes the sarcoplasmic reticulum in a muscle cell to open, releasing calcium ions which make the filaments slide and the muscle contract
Nerve impulse
What is the name of the place where a nerve cell attaches to a muscle cell
Neuromuscular junction
What is the genetic name for the type of molecule that the nerve cell releases that causes the muscle to contract, one example
Neurotransmitter, acetylcholine
What gives muscle their tone
Firing of muscle fibres
If you cut the nerve supply to a muscle what happens to it’s tone?
Goes flaccid
Where does the energy in the ATPThat powers the muscle come from
Energy bonds in food molecules
What is the cells preferred molecule for splitting energy
Glucose
What is the molecule to which the energy from the food is transferred from storage?
What does this turn that molecule into
ADP , ATP
The bonds in food molecules are broken by burning in oxygen inside the cell. Where does the o2 come from
Breathed into lungs, transferred to blood and then into cells
Myoglobin in muscle cells
What are the two types of muscle contraction
Isotonic and isometric
Which type of muscle contraction does not involve a change of length
Isometric
Give 2 reasons why muscle becomes shorter and stiffer if we don’t stretch
Less elastic and more inelastic fibres laid down in connective muscle
Cross bridge form between actin and myosin
What is another name for the voluntary part of the NS
Somatic
What is another name for the involuntary part of the NS
Automatic
What are the 2 parts of the autonomic NS
Parasympathetic and sympathetic
Why are there no stripes in smooth muscle
Bc the actin and myosin are not arranged in parallel rows as in striped muscles
In smooth muscle contraction slower and longer lasting than skeletal muscle contraction
Yes
What’s the big thing about cardiac muscle
Auto rhythmic
With age, muscle tissue is replaced by 2 other type of tissue, what are they
Fibrous CT and adipose CT
Which end of a muscle is the origin
The end that attaches to a stationary bone
Which end of a muscle is the insertion
The end that attaches to a moving bone
How does a muscle attach to a bone
Via a tendon
What is the prime mover and what is another name for it
The muscle that brings about the desired action, agonist
What is the name of the muscle that relaxes as the agonist contracts
Antagonist
Name an agonist and antagonist pair
Biceps brachial, triceps
Which muscle helps the agonist work more efficiently by reducing unnecessary movement called
Synergists
When does a spasm become a cramp
When it’s painful
What is a tic
Spasmodic, invol twitching, often of eye or face muscle
What is a tremor
Rhythmic, invol. Purposeless contraction, causing quivering / shaking
What is fasciculation
Invol. Brief muscle twitches visible under skin, irreg, assoc with Ms and ALS
What is fibrillation
Spontaneous, irregular contractor single muscle fibre under skin only visible with emg
What is myasthenia gravis and what causes it
Weak muscles caused by autoantibodies blocking receptor sites on muscle
What is the diff between asexual and sexual reproduction and what’s the advantage of sexual
Sexual - combining the genes of two parents
Asexual - one cell splitting into two
Advantage - mix genes - may produce better advantage in life
Where are the sperm produced
Tested
What is sperm production called
Spermatogenesis
What is the purpose of the scrotum
Keep sperm cool
What’s the really diff thing that happens in spermatogenesis
The chromosomes reduce from 46 to 23
What do the chromosomes contain
DNA
How long may sperm last in the female reproductive tract
48 hrs
Why do sperm cells have a lot of mitochondrial
To produce energy as they have lots of movement
Which cells secrete the hormone testosterone
Leydig cells
Which 2 hormone together stimulate sperm production in the testes
Testosterone and fhs
Where does fertilisation usually occur
Fallopian tubes
What is the endometrium and what does it do
Mucus membrane that feed the developing embryo
Where should the fertilised egg implant and develops
Uterus
What are the mammary glands
Modified sweat glands that produce milk
What is oogenesis
How one cell in the ovary develops into an egg
Which 4 hormones are released from the Graafian follicle (later corpus Luteum)
Progesterone, oestrogen, relaxin, inhibin
Approximately how many eggs mature and ovulate in a lifetime
About 400
What is the endocrine system made up of
Clusters of epithelial cells that secrete hormones (messengers molecules)
What is the endocrine system for and how does it do what it does
Maintain homeostasis- the messenger molecules make cells do things that keep conditions relatively constant when things around are changing
Why are the glands of the endocrine system called ductless glands
Bc they don’t release their hormones into ducts - they secrete into the tissue and enter the blood vessels
Why don’t all cells respond to all hormones
Bc only certain cells have receptors for certain hormones
What happens when hormones reach the target tissue cells
They change what those cells are doing
What are the 2 ways by which hormones can change what a cell is doing
Fat soluble hormones switch on the gene(s) in the DNA that contain the ‘instructions ‘ for the ‘job’ water soluble bind to a receptor and act as enzymes that make the cell do its job
Which other system, besides the endocrine system, maintain homeostasis
NS (ANS)
What are the diff between the way the nervous and endocrine system work
Neurotransmitter act very locally and act very quickly for a vy short time hormones act over a wide area, work slowly and last for a long time
What 3 types of stimulus can make glands secrete hormones
Nervous signal, Chen changes in blood, other hormones
How is the secretion of most hormones controlled and what is the one exception to this
Negative feedback , oxytocin (positive feedback)
What do most of the hormones release by the hypothalamus do
Make the hypothalamus release it’s hormones
How do the hormones secreted by the hypothalamus get to the anterior pituitary
Hypothalamus portal system
How do secretions of the hypothalamus get to the posterior pituitary
Neurones that start in the hypothalamus reach down into the posterior pituitary and release neurotransmitter, not hormones, which are stored there
Which two hormones are released from the posterior pituitary
ADH and oxytocin
What is the stimulus that causes human growth hormones to be released from the anterior pituitary gland
Low blood sugar
What effect does too much human growth hormones have on children and adult
Gigantism and acromegaly
What effect does too little growth hormones have on children
Pituitary dwarfism
Where is the thyroid gland
Around the larynx
Which two hormones does the thyroid release
T3 and T4
What is the main effects of T3 and T3 on body cells
Allows them to access more oxygen so they can produce more energy
List 5 symptoms of hyperthyroidism
Increase heart rate, fatigue, weight loss, heat intolerance, Xs sweating
What is the main hormones secretes by the testes abs what does it do
Testosterone
Regulate sperm production, stimulates production and maintenance of male characteristics eg beard growth, deepening of voice
What are the two main hormones produced by the ovaries
Oestrogen and progesterone
What are the 4 main things the female sex hormones do
Regulate menstrual cycle, maintain pregnancy, prepare mammary glands for lactation
Establish and maintain the female body shape
What does prolactin do in women
Prolactin imitates and maintain milk production by the mammary glands
Where do the glucocorticoid hormones come from and what is their overall effect
Adrenal cortex
Mobilising energy, responding to stress
What causes Cushing syndrome
Over-secretion of glucocorticoids
What is the main effect of melanin stimulating hormone on skin
Causes special skin cells called melanocytes to produce the pigment melanin which protects cell DNA from UV light damage
What are the 2 main things oxytocin does
Increase smooth muscle contraction in uterus to eject baby, milk production and ejection
What does anti diuretic hormone do
Causes the kidneys to retain more water and decrease urine volume
What effect does reduced ADH have
Causes kidneys to reabsorb water, leading to xs dilute urine, dehydration, extreme thirst
Where are the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline manufactured
Hypothalamus
Under what circumstances are adrenal medulla hormones (adrenaline and noradrenaline released and which NS are they associated with
Stress and sympathetic
From which cells is calcitonin released and where are these cells located
Para follicular, thyroid
How does calcitonin reduce blood calcium
Reduces activity of osteoclast
Where are the 4 parathyroid glands
Thyroid gland
How does parathyroid hormones increase blood calcium
Increase the number and activity of osteoclasts
Where would you find beta cells, what do they secrete, and what is the effect
Beta cells secrete insulin which reduces blood glucose
Very briefly what’s the diff between type 1 and 2 diabetes
Type 1 - absence or shortage of insulin
2 - cells resistant to insulin bc of life style
Where would you find alpha cells, what do they secrete and what is the effect
Alpha cells secrete glucagon , increases blood glucose
What is the main mineralocorticoid hormone secretes by the adrenal cortex and what are the 3 main things it helps regulate
Aldosterone, blood pressure, blood volume, acidity
Where is the pineal gland what does it release and what effect does it have
Roof is 3rd ventricle, melatonin , regulate sleepiness
