Aggression Flashcards
What’s aggression
Act carried out with intention to harm
Proactive aggression
Cold blooded
Planned aggression to get what you want
Reactive aggression
hot blooded’, angry, impulsive and physiological arousal
What neural mechanisms are involved in aggression
Limbic System
Orbitofrontal cortex
What’s the limbic system and what does it have in it
collection of sub cortical structures in the brain:
hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, cingulate gyrus
Function of the limbic system
Function: regulating how organisms respond to environmental threats including aggression as one type of response.
Hypothalamus
What is it
What is its function
Part of the limbic system
regulated the autonomic nervous system, which regulates responses to emotional circumstances.
If there is damage, there might be aggressive responses to threats.
Amygdala
What is it
What’s its function
most important structures in aggression, also in limbic system
Attaches emotional significance to sensory information. Abnormal activity leads to read/anger which can cause reactive aggression
Two studies that support the role of neural mechanisms in aggression
GOSPIC ET AL
COCCARO
Which of the two types of aggression is impulsive
Which is planned
- Reactive
- Proactive
What’s a neurotransmitter
It communicated between neurons
What is serotonin
What is its role with aggression
- An inhibitory neurotransmitter, meaning it inhibits the communication between neurones, dampening your neuronal activity
- Lower levels of serotonin in the ORBITOFRONTAL CORTEX are linked with lower levels of self control, hence an increased level of reactive (impulsive) aggression
Two studies for the role of serotonin
Virkkunen
BERMAN
Virkkunen et al
Found lower levels of the serotonin metabolite in aggressive imoulsive offenders in jail in comparison to violent non impulsive offenders.
Shows a correlation between low serotonin and impulsive aggression (reactive)
BERMAN (2009) -
studied that drugs which increase serotonin levels have reduced aggressive behaviour
gave participants either a placebo or a drug which enhances serotonin levels
In a lab game played to trigger anger, there was shocks given and received
Those who were on the meds gave fewer and less intense shocks ( showing less aggression can be causally linked between serotonin)
However this was only med participants who had a PRIOR HISTORY OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR
GOSPIC ET AL (2011):
AND
Variation of Gospic
Discovered that amygdala activity increased in response to an aggressive game.
2 players:
Confederate offers to split money in any way un/fair. Responder is being brain scanned (fmri)
Unfair offers led to aggressive reaction
When responders rejected unfair offer there was a quicker heightened response from the amygdala
VARIATION OF GOSPIC ET AL
participants were given anti anxiety drugs BZ’s, and there was a reduction in rejected offers and decrease of amygdala activity
COCCARO ET AL
COCCARO ET AL
Studied patients with psychiatric disorders who had aggression
Found that REDUCED orbitofrontal cortex activity > less self control> INCREASED AGGRESSION
OFC involves impulsive regulation and inhibition of aggressive behaviour. Shows that there are lots of highly complex and different neural structures. Theory of just one area involving aggression is reductionist
What hormone affects aggression in males
What is this hormone responsible for
Testosterone - the male androgen (male sex hormone)
Responsible for two things:
1. Development of male features
2. Regulating social behaviour
Males are generally more aggressive than females and more aggressive towards other men at 20 years old when testosterone levels are highest
Giammanco et al
Giammanco et al
castration study of rats show that removing testes of rats reduces aggression
Gave injections of testosterone to female rats and they had increased aggressive behaviour
during mating season, monkeys showed an increase in both testosterone level and aggressive behaviour
This study shows a clear link between testosterone and aggression
Dolan et al
found a positive correlation between testosterone levels and aggressive behaviours ina sample of 60 male offenders in maximum security hospitals
A lot of them suffered from personality disorders, shows that its not jsut hormonal factors might be psychological
Mehta and Josephs
Measured the T levels in males before and after losing a competitive game
You could either re challlenge the game or do something else which was non aggressive
73% of participants whose T rose after loss re challenged
22% whose T decreased did a non aggressive tsk
Shows correlation between t levels and aggressive behaviour
What is a key hormone for aggression in females
What is its function
(Female hormone)
Plays an important part in aggression in women.
Levels of progesterone vary in the menstruation cycle and are lowest just after menstruation.
Anna Ziomkiewicz et al : negative correlation between progesterone and self reported aggression. This suggests that low levels of progesterone and linked to higher levels in women
Anna Ziomkiewicz et al
Anna Ziomkiewicz et al : negative correlation between progesterone and self reported aggression. This suggests that low levels of progesterone and linked to higher levels in women
Strengths of the hormonal explanation
Anna ziomkiewicz - more of a holistic view on genders, rather than an androcentric view, it is positive as it applies to women.
Also it considers gender differences rather than gender bias which is a strength of the hormonal theory
Four weaknesses of the hormonal explanations
- Biologically deterministic: suggests that aggression isn’t influenced by free will/ choices. It would allow people with these hromones an alibi for acting certain ways, rather than taking responsibility.
- Animal research (Giammanco = valid?)
- Nature? SLT- Bandura BOBO doll study
- most studies are correlational not causational
What influence do genes have in aggression
Genes dont directly make you aggressive but influence biology that contributes to it
Co
What is concordance rate
Concordance rate = percentage probability that a trait will be seen in individual given to a gene or characteristic
What is heritability
measure of how much traits account for behaviour
Coccarro et al (1997)
Compare MZ and DZ twins
Examined concordance of criminal behaviour
Physical assault (MZ=41% HIGHER)
MZ 50%. DZ 19%
Verbal aggression (MZ=11% HIGHER)
MZ 28%. DZ 7%
Suggest that heritability accounts for 50% of variance in aggression
Rhee and Waldman (2002)
conducted a meta analysis of 51 twin and adoption studies to estimate magnitude of genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behaviour
Genetic influence accounted for 41% of variance (similar to COCCARO)
What is the MAOA Gene
Relevance to aggression?
This gene determines production of enzyme MAO-A
This enzyme breaks down neurotransmitters, serotonin for eg, into its component chemicals
One variant of this MAOA Gene - the warrior gene has been associated with aggressive behaviour
If you have a low level of the warrior gene, it leads to low levels of the MAO-A enzyme activity, and so abnormal levels of serotonin, therefore unbalanced/abnormal levels of serotonin
Brunner et al
Brunner et al:
28 male members of Dutch family involved in aggression: all had unusually low level of MAOA warrior gene
Stuart et al
Stuart et al:
97 men part of a partner beating treatement. Men with low warrior gene levels were the most aggressive inflicting ones.
What is the gene environment interaction idea for aggression
genes do not function in isolation
Low MAOA gene activity is only related to adult aggression when combined with early traumatic life events
Must be a combination of genetic influence as well as environment
Frazzetto
Frazzetto:
The association between antisocial aggression and low MAOA gene activity only in case who’d experienced trauma During first 15 years. Those who didn’t experience trauma didnt have high levels of aggression even with the MAOA activity variant.
4 WEAKNESS of genetic factors aggression
- WEAKNESS Biological determinism: basing it not on free will has ethical implications on society: gives an alibi to criminals/aggressive people for their behaviour if it has genetic roots/ traumatic events : blamed on parents.
However this might allow for more studies about improving parenting earlier on to reduce amount of traumatic events.
X hard to generalise genetic factor as conclusions when it is uncertain whether it is shared environment or the genes: COCCARO MZ and DZ twin studies. Especially MZ twins as they are physically similar and more likely to be treated similar.
X Stuart et al : could be other factors: vicarious reinforcement, could be other causes, if it is biologically induced it might be testosterone.
X Furthermore these are correlational not causal.
Frazzetto: childhood protection services might increase to be wary of early traumatic events,
POSITIVE: We can target the MAOA gene through gene editing to decrease aggression in society
What’s an alternative to the genetic factor explanation
Not just MAOA GENE: There are multiple genetic factors
Aggressive behaviour is not only due to low activity in MAOA gene but also the 5-HTT gene - a serotonin transporter gene
the combination of the two genes were linked. to aggression in the STUART study
Vassos et al (2014) : meta analysis where he found no evidence of a single gene and aggression
Aggressive behaviour is multifaceted.
Vassos et al (2014)
Vassos et al (2014) : meta analysis where he found no evidence of a single gene and aggression correlation. This shows it cannot just be one factor and we must take a more holistic approach.
What is the ethnological explanation of aggression two assumptions
Ethology - study of animals in their natural setting
Two assumptions
- Aggression is an instinct in all species, doesnt need to be learnt as it is innate and therefore mostly genetically determined.
- Ethologists study behaviour in non human animals and extrapolate their findings to human because we are all subject to the same forces of natural selection.
- What does the ethnological theory of aggression believe are the three adaptive functions of aggression
- Explain why each of these are adaptive functions
To spread species across different areas
To establish dominance hierarchies
Ritualised aggression
To spread species across different areas
after an aggressive display of behaviour the defeated animal rarely is killed
The animal is forced to establish its territory elsewhere, allowing members of that same species to spread out over a wider area, reducing competition for food and enabling the species to survive and evolve - therefore adaptive.
To establish dominance hierarchies
dominance gives status and power, allowing rewards such as mating rights
This is seen in humans, and is adaptive as power allows you access to resource and mates, meaning the most well adaptive and high in the hierarchy species survive reproduce and evolve - therefore adaptive
Ritualised aggression
ritual is a series of behaviours in a set order
Intra species aggression involves aggression to assert power within a species using threat displays WITHOUT physical damage.
This is more ritualistic, such as displaying claws and expressions of threat in order to dominate
This ends with a ‘ritual appeasement display’ indicating an acceptance of defeat and inhibiting aggression from the victor - hence adaptive as no one dies and no risk of extinction.
What does lorenz say about the ethnological theory of aggression
Argues that aggression is innate and adaptive ( beneficial for survival and establishes dominance)
Environmental stimulus (trigger) > triggers IRM; INTERNAL RESPONSE MECHANISM > causes FAP
Stephen Lea (1984)
According to lea there are fixed action patterns that are characteristics of adaptive aggression
- Stereotypes, or relatively unchanging (that individual will usually show that)
- Universal - same behaviour found in every member of that species
- Unaffected - by learning / experiences
- Ballistic - once behaviour triggered it cannot be altered
- Single purpose - only occurs in a specific situation
- Response - to an identifiable specific stimulus
SUUBSR
What are the Fixed Action patterns
What do they mean
Suubsr
Stephen Lea (1984) - Fixed Action Pattern (FAP), according to Lea there are six main features of FAP’s
Stereotypes, or relatively unchanging (that individual will usually show that)
Universal - same behaviour found in every member of that species
Unaffected - by learning / experiences
Ballistic - once behaviour triggered it cannot be altered
Single purpose - only occurs in a specific situation
Response - to an identifiable specific stimulus
Niki Tinbergen (1951)
KEY STUDY: IRM AND FAP Research - Niko Tinbergen (1951)
Stickleback are highly territorial during spring mating season (single purpose)
At this time, they develop red spot on underbelly
If another male enters their territory FAPs are shows, the trigger is the red spot on another underbelly
sticklebacks (fish) presented with wooden models in different shapes
Regardless of the shape of models, if they had a red spot the stickleback would act aggressively.
If there was no spot, even if the model looked similar to a stickleback there was no sign of aggression.
Once triggered, FAP always ran its course to completion with no further stimulus (ballistic)
This shows that FAPs are reflected in real life aggression and is an adaptive mechanism
Pros / cons of the ethnological explanation
2 pros
4 cons
- PRO. - lots of supporting evidence for the ethnological explanation for aggression
MAOA gene; inherited, innate determination of aggression
Limbic system: innate releasing mechanism, amygdala etc
Shows that genetic determination and heritability of aggression is a valid eplxation - PRO - based on nature not nurture/free will means we can find solutions or predisposing characteristics to improve levels of aggression
- CON - ethological assumption: extrapolation may be unrealistic to apply to comprehend human behaviours. How do we know that behaviours have the same root in both animals and humans, humans are much more developed and adapted.
- Con - Based on inferences in human interpretation which isnt scientfically credible there may be extraneous variables and is also subjective and may be inaccurate.
- CON - Biologically deterministic: doesn’t consider free will, the nature perspective (in nature v nurture debate). Shown in the assumption of aggression is innate/adaptive behaviour
- CON - there may be cultural variation of aggression: making it harder to generalise theory worldwide.
Nisbett
Nisbett:
found there is a North - South divide in the US for homicide rates (reactive aggression). Killings are more common in white males in southern states.
This may be due to social norms in that culture.
The ethnological theory defines aggression as innate, so cultural differences lower the validity of this theory as culture has been shown to override these innate influences.
Goodall
Observed chimpanzees in Tanzania ‘4 year war’ male chimps had: one group systematically slaughtered all members of another group.
Acts continued even when signals of appeasement (to end aggression) were demonstrated. Goes against argument of aggression.
Also shows that we cannot rely on extrapolation to explain human behaviour
the ethnological view of aggression, saying that it is self limiting and harmless is weak.
Key assumptions of the EVOLUTIONARY explanation (4)
there is differences in species: determined by genes
The most well adapted survive, reproduce and pass on generation (survival of the fittest)
This is the goal for any species
Less well adapted do not do those things (survive reproduce etc..)
What does the evolutionary explanation say about sexual jealousy
Sexual jealousy: major motivator of aggression in males. This can be classed as an evolutionary explanation because men, unlike women, can never bet totally sure of fathering his own child.
Cuckold: a man whose Wife deceives him by having sex with another man.
This paternal uncertainty is a result of the very real threat of cuckoldry for the male, or having to raise offspring of his own.
This links to assumption of evolutionary explanation because then males are unsure whether they are reproducing and therefore cannot survive and carry on their genes.
Also it would mean women may be supporting survival of a rivals genes and leaving father with fewer resources to invest in own future offspring, therefore men show evolutionary, adaptive aggression against women and rival men to increase cuckoldry.
Mate retention strategies
What are they
Direct guarding
Male vigilance over partner behaviour
Checking who they’re speaking to/social media etc
- Negative inducements
Issuing dire consequences for infidelity (ill kill myself if you leave me)
Wilson and daly
Wilson and Daly (1996): identify several mate retention strategies which involve aggression and or physical violence.
Direct guarding
Male vigilance over partner behaviour
Checking who they’re speaking to/social media etc
- Negative inducements
Issuing dire consequences for infidelity (ill kill myself if you leave me)
Wilson (1995)
Found that these make retention strategies linked to violence
Women who agreed with statements like ‘he insists on knowing who you are with and where your are’ and 2x as likely to have suffered physical violence from partners
Of these women 73% required medical attention and 53% said they fear their lives.
Shakleford (2005)
Two things that the study doesnt cover why is that a problem
Shackleford (2005): Intimate partner violence (IPV)
studied IPV in 107 heterosexual married couples that were married for less than a year using questionnaires.
Men completed mate retention inventory assessing these behaviours
Women completed spouse partner violence reports
FOUND: strong positive correlation between men’s reports of MRB and women’s report of partner physical violence.
What about homosexual couples? Social desirability in suing a questionnaire?
Cons of Shackleford (2005) and Wilson (1995)
Cons:
1. those two studies have low temporal validity (1995 & 2005) therefore their findings cannot be found now. For example, education, justice system and social norms are different from then to now.
Also now there is DNA and gene testing, so this might not apply to modern life. There would be a lesser threat of cuckoldry.
- Homosexual couples? Evolutionary explanation cant apply to them because they wouldn’t consider reproduction or they wouldnt feel this threat. Therefore the THEORY has low population validity as it cannot apply to homosexual couples who dont have the threat of cuckoldry as they can reproduce knowing it is their offspring.
- Influence of cultural norms.
The evolutionary approach talks about there is difference in people.
What is the evolutionary explanation of bullying
Evolutionary explanation of bullying
occurs because of a power imbalance and researchers have traditionally viewed it as a maladaptive behaviour
However bullying may be an adaptive strategy to increase chances of behaviour promoting own health and opportunities for reproduction.
Volk et al (2012)
Volk et al (2012)
argues that characteristics associated with bullying behaviour are attractive to opposite sex. This aligns with evolutionary ideas of bullying cause then it promotes reproduction.
In males it suggests:
dominance
Acquisition of resources
Strength
Wording off rivals
This would allow access to more female mates and minimal threats from competing males to increase reproduction and survival of genes.
Pros/cons of the evolutionary explanation of bullying (1)
Explains gender differences:
The theory is not biased. We learnt that male engage in more aggressive behaviour than females, which is a gender DIFFERENCE not BIAS. Females use more adaptive strategy of verbal aggression to prevent infidelity from partners.
Cons
There are cultural differences that the evolutionary explanation cannot explain - Thomas ( Kung San people) discourage violence from childhood and diminish reputation in community if they show aggression. This shows that social norms and cultural differences dominate over evolutionary adaptive theory.
What is the social psychological explanation ( of frustration)
What is a social psychological explanation:
any theory that argues aggression as the result of an interaction between an individuals characteristics and features of situation
The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
What is the frustration aggression hypothesis
Dollard et al (1939): identifies This social psychological theory that argues that anger hostility and violence are alwyas the outcome when we are prevented from reaching our goals (frustration)
Cause and effect is identified in this frustration aggression hypothesis: frustration always leads to aggression and aggression I always the result of frustration
The outlet of aggression is cathartic because the aggression created by aggression is satisfied, reducing the drive and making the aggression less.
Drive to goal> obstacle to goal> frustration> aggression>success > catharsis
Or after aggression> punishment and back to frustration in a cycle
Dollard et al (1939)
Dollard et al (1939): identifies This social psychological theory that argues that anger hostility and violence are alwyas the outcome when we are prevented from reaching our goals (frustration)
Cause and effect is identified in this frustration aggression hypothesis: frustration always leads to aggression and aggression I always the result of frustration
The outlet of aggression is cathartic because the aggression created by aggression is satisfied, reducing the drive and making the aggression less.
Drive to goal> obstacle to goal> frustration> aggression>success > catharsis
Or after aggression> punishment and back to frustration in a cycle
What is the theory of indirect expression of aggression
(Frustration aggression hypothesis)
Indirect expression of aggression
this hypothesis recognises aggression isn’t always DIRECTLY expressed to source of frustration, these are three reasons why:
Powerful: we risk punishment if we are aggressive towards it
Abstract: government, economic state or political state
Unavailable: true source just isnt there in the moment.
Russell Green (1968)
Russell Green (1968)
looked at effects of frustration
Male uni students completing jigsaw puzzle, three conditions:
Puzzle is impossible
Ran out of time because a confederate (student) kept interfering
Confederate insults ppts when they fail
DV = they measure the level of electric shocks given from participants to confederate when confederate does one of three.
The third condition produced the highest level of shocks. Second was medium, first was lowest because there is no immediate person to target frustration onto.
this suggests that frustration does cause frustration
Berkowitz theory and study evidence (frustration aggression hypothesis)
Berkowitz: Weapon Effects
suggested that we arent always aggressive when frustrated
Frustration creates a READINESS for aggression.
Need a presence of ‘aggressive cues’ in the environment to increase likelihood of aggressive behaviour
Berkowitz and LePage (1967)
Environmental cues, weapon effects.
lab situation
Confederates give shocks to participants
And vice versa
The number of shocks given depend on presence of weapons in the lab
When two guns were put on table, the number of shocks on average = 6
No guns presented, the number of shocks = 4.67
Berkowitz and LePage (1967)
Environmental cues, weapon effects.
lab situation
Confederates give shocks to participants
And vice versa
The number of shocks given depend on presence of weapons in the lab
When two guns were put on table, the number of shocks on average = 6
No guns presented, the number of shocks = 4.67
Berkowitz (1989)
Berkowitz: (1989)
link between aggression and frustation is complex, aggression can occur without frustration and those who are frustrated dont always exhibit aggressive acts.
Negative effect theory: frustration is use one of many stimuli that creates negative feeling (could be pain,sadness, loneliness etc)
What is the negative effect theory (against frustration hypothesis)
Berkowitz: (1989)
link between aggression and frustation is complex, aggression can occur without frustration and those who are frustrated dont always exhibit aggressive acts.
Negative effect theory: frustration is use one of many stimuli that creates negative feeling (could be pain,sadness, loneliness etc)
Evaluate the frustration hypothesis
2 p
8 cons
Pros
1.Has supporting evidence. This evidence (B+L) has high reliability ( meaning it has credibility in its replicability )
2. Marcus-Newhall et al (2000): meta analysis on 49 studies which supports displacement of aggression on another person.
Cons
1. It is nomothetic, doesnt consider individual differences: biological differences
- Environmentally deterministic: ‘social’ psych explanation, its about the environmental
- You cant establish cause effect relationship because frustration doesn’t always lead to aggression. It can lead to other outcomes/emotions, it can have differnt causes.
- Releasing anger through aggression isnt cathartic,
Bushman (2002)
aggression isnt cathartic. In variation where participants released anger thorugh boxing there were 2x more aggressive afterward. Shows that aggression doesn’t decrease frustration/Anger.
Had 700 college students: enormous sample size - Mainly explains reactive aggression not proactive
- Low population, temporal and cultural validity
- What about non violent people>
- What about people whose parents are aggressive? Nurture.
Marcus newhall (2000)
Marcus-Newhall et al (2000): meta analysis on 49 studies which supports displacement of aggression on another person.
Bushman (2002)
- Releasing anger through aggression isnt cathartic,
Bushman (2002)
aggression isnt cathartic. In variation where participants released anger thorugh boxing there were 2x more aggressive afterward. Shows that aggression doesn’t decrease frustration/Anger.
Had 700 college students: enormous sample size
Explain SLT as an explanation for aggression
the bridge between cognitive and behaviourist theory
Is more holistic than behaviourism
Is softly deterministic rather than environmental determinism
Key words
4 mediational processes : Attention Retention Motor Reproduction and Motivation
Self-Efficacy:
the extent to which we believe our actions will achieve a desired goal
Confidence in ability to be aggressive grows as a child learns that they can gain rewards with each successful outcome. Therefore confidence that aggression will continue to be effective in future.
Self - efficacy (SLT)
Self-Efficacy:
the extent to which we believe our actions will achieve a desired goal
Confidence in ability to be aggressive grows as a child learns that they can gain rewards with each successful outcome. Therefore confidence that aggression will continue to be effective in future.
Bandura - Bobo doll study (first variation)
Bandura Bobo doll study: first version (1961)
observed adult hitting Bobo doll
Children not allowed to pay with toys to create frustration
Finding
in room with the Bobo doll they behaved really aggressively in comparison to those who observed a non aggressive adult
Bandura Bobo doll study second variation (1963)
Bandura Bobo Doll study: second version (1963) - shows its not just observing direct behaviour but indirectly and also through reward/punishment
Found
Rewarded group are more likely to be violent
Punished group are least likely to be violent.
Conclusion
Humans CAN learn indirectly by observing behaviour and consequence.
Problems?
There may be biological influences
Free will? They might not have motivation jsut random
Evaluate SLT as an explanation for aggression
(3p
1c
Strengths
SLT is more practical than behaviourism because people arent simple passive recipients of reinforcements. It considers free will, internal mental processes, schema etc. Behaviourism does not consider free will
Reciprocal determinism: that we shape our own behaviour by the environment we’re in. Just how our behaviour is shaped by the environment, we are also shaping the environment around us.
In this case we can surround our selves with non aggressive models to reduce aggressive influences.
- Poulin and Boivin (2000) boys 9-11, most aggressive boys form friendships with other aggressive boys, creating grounds for antisocial behaviour. These friendships are lasting and stable and mutually reinforcing each others aggression
This supports SLT because of role models, observation and imitation and self efficacy.
Weaknesses.
!Kung San people in Kalahari desert disvalue any aggression, none for discipline children etc.
This is a limitation because they dont have role models, they cannot observe and imitate, but they may still be aggressive. Therefore we cant explain why there may be aggression in a harmless society as they have nobody to observe.
Poulin and Boivin
- Poulin and Boivin (2000) boys 9-11, most aggressive boys form friendships with other aggressive boys, creating grounds for antisocial behaviour. These friendships are lasting and stable and mutually reinforcing each others aggression
This supports SLT because of role models, observation and imitation and self efficacy.
What is deindividuation
What is individuation
Deindividuated - psychological state where an individual loses their personal identity, and takes on an identity of the social group. This can be a crowd, a uniform etc.
this frees an individual from constraints of social norms, leading to aggressive behaviours.
Individuated - when we are easily identified , our behaviour here is constrainted to social norms
What is crowd behaviour
Crowd behaviour - more freedom to behave in ways we usually wouldnt because we are unidentified. We lose self identity and disregard social norms and laws. Responsibility is now shared thorugh the crowd as we have reduced guilt.
(Larger than three)
Dodd (1985)
)
229 psych students asked “If you could do anything humanely possible, with complete assurance that you would not be detected or help responsible, what would you do?”
anonymous replies.
36% - antisocial behaviour
26% said criminal acts ‘rob a bank’
Some said murder, rape, or assassination
9% were pro social behaviours that help people
What are three de individuation factors
1.crowd behaviour
2.higher anonymity
3. Higher diffusion of responsibility.
Prentice Dunn and Roger’s (1982)
Prentice Dunn and Roger’s (1982) : The consequence of anonymity will lead to low private and public self awareness. Which hence allows aggression
Private self awareness - attention to own emotions
This increases de-individuation. Reduced in a crowd > less self critical and less self evaluative
2. Public self awareness - how much we care about what others think of us
Reduced in a crowd> less accountability for our actions
How does private and public self awareness lead to aggression
Private self awareness - attention to own emotions
This increases de-individuation. Reduced in a crowd > less self critical and less self evaluative
2. Public self awareness - how much we care about what others think of us
Reduced in a crowd> less accountability for our actions
How does standford prison experience t link to de individuation
Group display - all the guards had the common goal of discipline the prisoners?
Anonymity - lack of accountability for aggression
uniform
Numbers no names
Diffusion of responsibility - 2/3 of guards acted aggressively.
Less public self awareness - they dont care what others think, they dont know each others names, they all in same uni
3 Cons of de individuation as an explanation for aggression
Con: low external validity - population validity is low, only psych students
Con: demand characteristics - because they are psych students.
Con: leading questions; “you would not be detected” “no responsible”, kind of asking for an illegal answer
What is Spears alternative theory to de individuation (SIDE)
DIFFERENT THEORY:
De individuating believes that we behave in contrary to social norms when we are de individuated, however, another theory says that the shift isnt away from social norms but is from private identity to social identity because we gain anonymity.
Spears SIDE: (Social Identity Model of De Individuation)
WHAT IS INSTITUTIONAL AGGRESSION
Institutional aggression in context of prisons
Institutional aggression = aggression or violent behaviourr that occurs within social context of a prison/organised settings
What are the two models for institutional aggression
Dispositional and situational
What is the importation model
- dispositional explanation
Irwin and Cressey (1962) - suggest that prisoners IMPORT their pre existing values and norms and personal characteristics Into prison.
Willingness to use aggression in prison reflects life before imprisonment.
Inmates import aggressive behaviour to: negotiate their way through unfamiliar environments.
Inmates import aggressive behaviour to: establish power/status/access to reasources.
Irwin and cressey (1962)
Irwin and Cressey (1962) - suggest that prisoners IMPORT their pre existing values and norms and personal characteristics Into prison.
Willingness to use aggression in prison reflects life before imprisonment.
Inmates import aggressive behaviour to: negotiate their way through unfamiliar environments.
Inmates import aggressive behaviour to: establish power/status/access to reasources.
Delisi et al (2011)
DeLisi et al (2011)
813 juvenile delinquents - California
They studied the dispositional explanation: childhood trauma, high levels or irritability, substance abuse and violence etc.
FINDINGS: They were more likely to engage in suicidal activity, sexual misconduct and physical violence within the prison. This is in comparison to control group of inmates wiht fewer negative disposistional features.
This shows it is due to environment, and is a strong supporting study of the importation model
Fischer (2001)
Fischer (2001)
In prison systems gang members known by guards are usually isolated from others. This leads to a 50% reduction of prison violence. It shows it is not dispositional factors that cause aggression, but the environment as it is more determined by the group you are in rather than your background.
The dispositional explanation (importation model) - is SOFTLY DETERMINISTIC.
Strength: can be a predisposition but it depends on other factors such as free will of values etc.
This is because prisoners may be predisposed to aggression but aggressive behaviour ultimately depends on other factors.
3 studies in favour of the dispositional explanation for institutional aggression
Dispositional explanation = importation model
That aggression is an ‘imported’ characteristic from prisoners pre existing values
Delisi
Fischer
Camp and gaes
Camp and Gaes
Camp and Gaes (2005)
Study 561 inmates with similar criminal history and predispositions. Their aim is to find out whether the prison environment influences behaviour.
Half were put in low security prison, half in high.
33% in low security and 36% in high security were not involved in aggressive misconduct within two years.
This difference is not statistically significant, showing it is more to do with the characteristics of the inmates.
This ws a field experiment with random allocation, hence it has high internal validity.
This has more valid conclusions than the other study as it shows clearly its about the characteristics of inmates.
Dilulio
Criticises the importation model (dispositional explanation)
Dilulio thinks it ignores the role of prison guards and factors that affect the running of prisons.
Administrative control model ACM: poorly managed prisons (weak leadership, unofficial rules) are more likely to expereince the most serious forms of inmate violence- therefore its a situational factor.
What is the deprivation model
The situational explanation
Clemmer (1958) : said that prison aggression results from causes existing within environment, might be people.
This can be things such as:
Deprivation of liberty - no longer trusted in society, morally rejected, limited civil rights.
Deprivation of autonomy - prisoners realise they have no power and their behaviour is controlled - frustation might occur> obstacle to goal>leads to aggression
Deprivation of goods/services - sense of failure lack of person things
Deprivation of heterosexual relationships - part of social identity, might fear homosexuality.
Deprivation of security - fears or personal safety if institution doesn’t control aggression
What is a strength of the situational explanation for institutional aggression
PRISM : Promoting Risk Interventions by Situational Management
This is designed to reduce institutional aggression by addressing situational factors. They identified 22 factors including: abuse of authority by prison staff, disrespectful treatment by staff, fear from lack of safety, lack of stimulation, poor basic facilities.
What is PRISM (Institutional aggression)
Give some examples of it IRL
PRISM : Promoting Risk Interventions by Situational Management
This is designed to reduce institutional aggression by addressing situational factors. They identified 22 factors including: abuse of authority by prison staff, disrespectful treatment by staff, fear from lack of safety, lack of stimulation, poor basic facilities.
Norway: follows the principles of humanity, normality, security. They also create personal relationships with the officers, just like humans.
USA:
Cunningham
Supporting study of deprivation model
Cunningham et al (2010) - 35 inmate homicides in Texas prisons are all linked to deprivations. For example, arguments over drugs, personal possessions and homosexual relationships.
These support the deprivation model as they are deprived of : goods and services, autonomy
Supporting study of deprivation model
Cunningham et al (2010) - 35 inmate homicides in Texas prisons are all linked to deprivations. For example, arguments over drugs, personal possessions and homosexual relationships.
These support the deprivation model as they are deprived of : goods and services, autonomy
Study against deprivation model
Hensley et al (2002) - 256 male and female inmates were studied across 2 prisons in Mississippi. They were allowed conjugal visits (partners to come and have sex), but, there is no link between involvement in these visits and reduced aggressive behaviour.
These show that situational factors and deprivation model might not affect prison violence
Two studies for interactionist model
Jiang and Fisher-Giorlando (2002)
Deprivation model : accounts for violence against prison staff.
Importation model : accounts for violence against other inmates and juvenile offenders.
Dobson and Wald (2004)
Inmates suffer depression, but it doesn’t necessarily lead to violence, unless combined with individual characteristics influencing prison culture
Dobson and wald
Dobson and Wald (2004)
Inmates suffer depression, but it doesn’t necessarily lead to violence, unless combined with individual characteristics influencing prison culture
Jiang and fisher giorlando
Jiang and Fisher-Giorlando (2002)
Deprivation model : accounts for violence against prison staff.
Importation model : accounts for violence against other inmates and juvenile offenders.
Hensley et al (2002)
Hensley et al (2002) - 256 male and female inmates were studied across 2 prisons in Mississippi. They were allowed conjugal visits (partners to come and have sex), but, there is no link between involvement in these visits and reduced aggressive behaviour.
These show that situational factors and deprivation model might not affect prison violence
Robertson et al (2013)
Strengths and weaknesses
1036 participants from New Zealand picked That are born in 1972/73
Measured their tv viewing hours until the age of 26
Meta analysis
‘aggression’ in this study was measured by conviction for crimes
Time spent watching tv was a reliable predictor of aggressive behaviour, so more tv watched more likely to have anti social personality disorder
Pros:
not deterministic. They werent told how much to watch or what programs to watch, viewing them as active consumers rather than passive recipients.
It studies the dynamic nature of media in the long term
Cons:
Might not be time spent but the programs actually watched
Also it isnt necessarily a reliable ‘predictor’, its not a causation study but an association which isnt as strong for evidence.
Media
Communication channels such as computer games or tv channels
2 reasons to support the claim that video games have stronger effects on aggression than traditional media
Video games
by having ‘players’ you have an active role in this form of media rather than being a passive viewer; the effects might be greater
Directly rewarded (operant conditioning)
Traditional media
Bartholow and and Anderson
One pro
Two cons
Bartholow and Anderson EXPERIMENTAL
participants either played a violent or non violent game for ten minutes
Then they completed competitive reaction time task (TCRTT) - to measure aggression,
Participants delivered white noise at chosen volumes to non existent competitors
Those who played violent games selected significantly higher volumes of white noise 5.97 v 4.60
Pros:
they establish a causal link, so maybe stronger than the correlational longitudinal study
Cons:
artificial lab measures of aggression do not equate to actually measuring aggression. This is low mundane realism because the task isnt accurate to everyone’s every day life or as a common measure of aggression
no fear of retaliation - maybe demand characteristics and white noise given to computers affects results. They can be ‘safely’ aggressive
Delisi et al 2013 - correlational
One pro
3 cons
DeLisi et al (2013) - CORRELATIONAL
Structured interview with 227 juvenile offenders with the history oof aggression for example hitting teachers, parents or gang fighting
aggressive behaviour was significantly positively correlated with how often they played violent computer games and how much they enjoy them
The link was ‘so well established’ that aggression is like a public health issue like aids/hi
Pros
- higher mundane realism than the other studies
Cons
inability to draw a cause/effect = low iv
No controlled or manipulated variables
No random allocation to violent or non violent media
The two hypotheses of media
1.The socialisation hypothesis:
That aggressive media causes people to become aggressive
2.The selection hypothesis:
That people who are already aggressive, select aggressive media. (Niche picking idea)
3 general limitations of media studies of aggression
- WEAKNESS: Each study uses different definitions of aggression
This is a limitation because it meant that there is not jsut different ways of studying it, it is clear that it is still not fully understood as a concept to study - WEAKNESS: the variation in aggression definitions means that the findings of studies are difficult to compare > also hard to prioritise because we cannot equate violent behaviour history (DeLisi) and white noise (Bartholow and Anderson)
- WEAKNESS: Violence is not aggression. All violence is aggression, but, not all aggression is violent and criminal for example like proactive (cold blooded) aggression.
Response to limitation of media aggression that all studies use different definitions of aggression/ c
Anderson et al (2010)
Did a meta analysis of 136 studies with different measures of aggression - experimental correlational and longitudinal
found a positive correlation between exposure to violent video games and aggressive behaviours thoughts and feelings,
AND: this was found for all measures of aggression; male, female, collectivist or individualist cultures.
Anderson et al (2010)
Anderson et al (2010)
Did a meta analysis of 136 studies with different measures of aggression - experimental correlational and longitudinal
found a positive correlation between exposure to violent video games and aggressive behaviours thoughts and feelings,
AND: this was found for all measures of aggression; male, female, collectivist or individualist cultures.
PROS
supports all findings of correlating aggression and violent media
2. There was no influence from publication bias on results, ‘my side’ bias : peer reviews and editors are more likely to publish/not publish for their benefit. This wasnt a risk here.
3. Greater significance effects due to other quality studies.
CONS
Explaining research using SLT:
Bobo doll study (second variation 1963 Bandura), childnre more likely to imitate aggression when they see reward/punishment or identifying with on screen people.
> This enhances the validity of the theory of media influence because SLT used VIDEOS of ADULTS being punished/rewarded
What are the three influences of media to aggression
Desensitisation
Disinhibition
Cognitive priming
What is the general aggression model?
DeWall and Anderson (2011) state that no single factor on its own can explain aggression it must be all three of these and their interaction. This is the General Aggression model.
All three desensitisation disinhibition and cognitive priming
What is desensitisation
What aggression does it link to
- DESENSITISATION:
This is the idea that repeated exposure to violence > reduced normal levels of physiological and psychological arousal (associated with anxiety) > therefore making aggressive behaviour more likely.
Media influences on aggression
What is Physiological arousal (media influences on aggression)
Which influence out of three is it included in
Its in desensitisation
Physiological arousal:
When we usually witness violence we experience physiological arousal, that is associated with the sympathetic nervous system: high heart rate, sweat rate, increased pupil dilation and muscle tension.
Therefore when children watch aggression on tv and play violent video games > they become desensitised meaning that their stimulus has a diminished impact and so creating less anxiety and physiological arousal
What is psychological arousal ( media influences of aggression )
Which influence is it included in
It’s about your mental state and attitudes on aggression
Psychological arousal:
When we are repeatedly exposed to violence> less negative attitudes on violent media, believing aggression being sued to solve conflicts is socially acceptable
Funk et al (2004) - when these negative attitudes to aggression are weakened, less empathy is felt, and their injuries are minimised/dismissed.
Lower arousal could be cause of a cathartic response/release?
Funk et al (2004)
In media influences on aggression (desensitisaiton) in psychological arousal.
Funk et al (2004) - when these negative attitudes to aggression are weakened, less empathy is felt, and their injuries are minimised/dismissed.
Lower arousal could be cause of a cathartic response/release?
2 Supporting studies of desensitisation
Weisz and Earls (1995)
Participants shown a film in a lab study, which contains a long and graphic rape scene
they then watched a re enactment of rape trial
This is in comparison to a control group who watched a non sexually violent film
- Those male participants that watched ‘straw dogs’ with rape scene, showed greater acceptance of rape and sexual aggression
They also expressed less sympathy towards the victim and were less likely to find the defendant guilty
This however was not seen in females? Could it be testosterone> selection hypothesis?
- Krahe et al (2011)
Participants shown violent or non violent videos
Then their ‘skin conductance’ ( INDIRECT MEASURE OF PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL) was measured.
Habitual viewers of violent media > had lower levels of arousal and gave louder bursts of wiht noise without being provoked - proactive aggression
Watching more violence> more desensitised > more willing to behave aggressively
Weisz and Earls (1995)
Supporting study of desensitisaiton as an influence that aggressive media has on peoples behaviour
Weisz and Earls (1995)
Participants shown a film in a lab study, which contains a long and graphic rape scene
they then watched a re enactment of rape trial
This is in comparison to a control group who watched a non sexually violent film
- Those male participants that watched ‘straw dogs’ with rape scene, showed greater acceptance of rape and sexual aggression
They also expressed less sympathy towards the victim and were less likely to find the defendant guilty
This however was not seen in females? Could it be testosterone> selection hypothesis?
Krahe et al (2011)
Supporting study of desensitisaiton as an influence that aggressive media has on peoples behaviour
- Krahe et al (2011)
Participants shown violent or non violent videos
Then their ‘skin conductance’ ( INDIRECT MEASURE OF PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL) was measured.
Habitual viewers of violent media > had lower levels of arousal and gave louder bursts of wiht noise without being provoked - proactive aggression
Watching more violence> more desensitised > more willing to behave aggressively
What is disinhibition
One of the three influences that media can have on aggression (attitudes towards it or aggressive behaviour)
This is the idea that normal social constraints (against aggressive behaviour) are weakened by Violent media (environmental triggers) , making aggression seem temporarily socially acceptable > aggression is more likely to occur.
Portrayals of violence minimise their effects> makes them normative> rewarding behaviour and creating new norms.
Supporting evidence for disinhibition
Berkowitz and Alioto (1973)
Participants who saw a film that depicted violence as vengeance gave longer and more shocks (fake) to a confederate.
This removal of social constraints is seen as justified
Supporting the socialisation hypothesis
- Bandura (1963) second variation
Children learn that characters in cartoons do not get punished> disinhibited> more likely to behave aggressively
This shows how cartoon aggression can lead to those who observe it to become aggressive.
Berkowitz and alioto
Supporting evidence for disinhibition (one of the three efffects of aggressive media on)
Berkowitz and Alioto (1973)
Participants who saw a film that depicted violence as vengeance gave longer and more shocks (fake) to a confederate.
This removal of social constraints is seen as justified
Supporting the socialisation hypothesis
Bandura (1963) second variation
Support for disinhibition - one of the three effects if exposed to aggressive media
- Bandura (1963) second variation
Children learn that characters in cartoons do not get punished> disinhibited> more likely to behave aggressively
This shows how cartoon aggression can lead to those who observe it to become aggressive.
Cognitive priming
What is it
What topic of aggression is it under
One of the three influences that aggressive media can have on behaviour/belief.
This is the idea that violent images provide us with ready made scripts about how violence happens (like schema). This is stored in memory and triggered when we see cues in a situation. Therefore we are ore likely to interpret things aggressively deepngin on what we consume and how it changes out schema
Supporting evidence for cognitive priming
Fischer and Greitmeyer (2006)
Investigated the priming of aggressive scripts in memory by looking at violent song lyrics.
They used repeated measures - male participants listening to derogatory tricks about women vs neutral lyrics
After derogatory they recalled more negative qualities about women and behaved more aggressively towards a female confederate
This was replicated with female and similar male hating response.
Zendle et al (2018) - found that when complexity is controlled, the priming effects of video games is diffused.
This means it may actually just be that the studies are complex rather than aggression causing a priming effect.
Zendle (2018)
What topic is it for
Supporting evidence for cognitive priming
One of three influences media can have on aggression
Zendle et al (2018) - found that when complexity is controlled, the priming effects of video games is diffused.
This means it may actually just be that the studies are complex rather than aggression causing a priming effect.
FISCHER AND GREITMEYER
Supporting evidence: for cognitive priming
Fischer and Greitmeyer (2006)
Investigated the priming of aggressive scripts in memory by looking at violent song lyrics.
They used repeated measures - male participants listening to derogatory tricks about women vs neutral lyrics
After derogatory they recalled more negative qualities about women and behaved more aggressively towards a female confederate
This was replicated with female and similar male hating response.
Pro
Real life application - violence depends on how people interpret environmental cues, depending on cognitive scripts stored in memory
2. This provides solutions and interventions : we can challenge hostile cognitive biases, encouraging other alternatives such as humour or negotiation providing different media
Con
There might be a confounding variable in cognitive priming research for example research into effects of video games found that playing violent ones prime violent behaviour.
The problem is that violent video games might just be more complex, and this complex ist is a confounding variable, hence it could be a complexity causing priming effect rather than the violence
