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addiction- 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

what is addiction

A

disorder characterized by repetitive behaviours despite substantial adverse consequences (e.g., damage to health or negative social consequences)

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2
Q

what is psychological dependance

A

form of dependence that involves emotional–motivational withdrawal symptoms upon ceasing to use a drug or discontinuing habit-forming behaviours

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3
Q

what is tolerance

A

reduction in the response to the drug, so that more is required for the same effect -occurs in response to sustained use of a tolerance-forming drug- Not all drugs are tolerance forming
- Behavioural tolerance- an individual learns through repeated exposure to the drug to adjust their behaviour to compensate for the effects of the drug

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4
Q

what is physical dependance

A

when the body undergoes a physiological change in response to the repeated use of substance/drug.
-evidenced by withdrawal syndrome
-most common with tolerance-forming drugs, but can occur in non-tolerance forming drugs too

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5
Q

what is withdrawal syndrome

A

when a person who has developed physical dependence to a drug stops or reduces intake of the drug.
-physical symptoms- increased heart rate, higher blood pressure
-psychological symptoms- anxiety, anhedonia (loss of pleasure) and cravings

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6
Q

what is genetic vulnerability

A

any inherited predisposition that makes a person vulnerable to addiction, e.g. 40% to 60% of the risk for alcoholism is genetic

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7
Q

why are peers a risk factor for addiction

A

people of a similar age and social status become a significant risk factor as young people are highly motivated to seek social acceptance
- model attitudes that encourage addictive behaviour- creation of a group norm that favours risk-taking
-Because addictive behaviours draw attention, adolescents often over-estimate the extent to which their peers engage in such behaviours- creates a misconception that addictive behaviours are normal and therefore acceptable

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8
Q

how is personality a risk factor for addiction

A

Personality refers to patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving that differ between individuals
-traits that contribute to development of addiction;
-impulsive personality, likely to act on desires without thinking of consequences- focus on instant gratification.
-Sensation seeking - involves need for high levels of external stimulation with the urge to seek such stimulation

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9
Q

how is stress a risk factor for addiction

A

self-medication theory- use drugs to cope with tension associated with life
stressors- drug use functions as a means to regulate emotions and soothe psychological distress
- biological explanation- Chronic stress reduces functioning of prefrontal cortex, leads to more impulsive decision making

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10
Q

how is family influence a risk factor for addiction

A

parenting style that are risk factors;
-permissive style (involved with the child but do not place any controls on their behaviour)
-authoritarian style (demanding and quickly resort to the use of punishment)
-authoritative style of parenting (high levels of emotional warmth and an appropriate level of parental control) is a protective factor

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11
Q

limitation- research into risk factors- free will

A

theorises that if a person is exposed to enough risk factors they will develop an addiction- overlooks the role of free will
-no conscious decision making in the development of an addiction- addicts never had a choice
however- challenges the idea that addicts have “chosen” to be such
-could lead some to believe they lack the internal locus of control to take control of their behaviour and give up their addiction

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12
Q

strength - research into risk factors- economic impacts

A

drug addictions lead to £10.7 billion in policing, healthcare, welfare and crime -leads to economic inactivity and poor productivity
-can inform public policies that can reduce the likelihood of developing an addiction- can save society money.

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13
Q

explain the pathway of nicotine in the brain

A

-binds with and activates nicotine receptors in the VTA in the reward pathway
-leads to release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens- creating the rewarding feeling of pleasure

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14
Q

why does tolerance occur-nicotine addiction

A

the nicotine receptors become less responsive to nicotine through repeated exposure- desensitisation
-binding of nicotine causes less excitation over time- means less dopamine is released into the nucleus accumbens
-upregulation of receptors due to increased exposure to nicotine

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15
Q

why does withdrawal syndrome occour

A

combination of no nicotine and desensitized nicotine receptors means the body will struggle to activate these receptors with only acetylcholine
-less dopamine is released because of this- low mood, anxiety, cravings for nicotine
-upregulation-more receptors made for desensitisation- positive feedback

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16
Q

what happens if a smoker quits for a sustained time

A

nicotine receptors in the VTA return to normal sensitivity- less receptors are needed, downregulation
-reward pathway returns to a normal state of activity
-tolerance to nicotine is reduced

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17
Q

limitation-neurochemical exp for nic addiction- limited exp

A

study found- social factors increased the probability of adolescent smoking
-demonstrates the importance of social factors in exp of nic addiction- partial explanation for nicotine addiction
-neurochemical exp still needed- e.g. biopsychosocial
- must include all relevant levels of explanation

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18
Q

strength- neurochemical exp for nic addiction- real-life applications

A

-drug treatments for addiction- varenicline is x3 more effective in helping people quit than placebos
-effectiveness of drug treatments, show the neurochemical exp is of practical use in society
-economic implications of the neurochemical exp- less smokers means less health treatment for smoking related diseases
-effectiveness of varenicline provides indirect support for the neurochemical exp- generates effective treatments

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19
Q

outline SLTs exp for why people start smoking

A

(role) model models smoking behaviour,
attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation, imitation
-vicarious reinforcment makes this more likely

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20
Q

learning theorys exp for why smokers continue to smoke

A

positive reinforcement- rewarding feeling from dopamine in reward pathway
negative reinforcement- removal of withdrawal syndrome

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21
Q

what is cue relativity

A

learned response seen in addicts, involving physical reactions and psychological reactions in response to stimuli associated with their addiction
-primary (cigarette) and secondary (friends who smoke/lighters) reinforcers

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22
Q

strength- learning theorys exp for nic addiction- research support

A

meta-analysis- when smokers were presented with items associated with nicotine, their heart rates increased and they reported a strong desire to smoke.
-support the exp- cue relativity and classical conditioning
-meta-analysis-data from several published studies- reliable

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23
Q

limitation- learning theorys exp for nic addiction- limited exp

A

only around half the people who smoke in adolescence develop an addiction
-according to learning theory everyone who starts smoking should continue due to the positive reinforcement from smoking- other factors are needed to explain this
- holistic exp shown in biopsychosocial
-complete exp cannot operate at a single level of explanation

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24
Q

outline learning theorys exp for gambling addiction

A

gambling is directly reinforced through operant conditioning
- positive reinforcement- act of gambling is rewarded and reinforced by a pay-out, especially the ‘big wins’
-negative reinforcement- offers a way of escaping from negative aspects of a person’s life- leads to a spiral in which the negative aspects become worse as the gambling continues, meaning the gratification of escaping the negatives become greater

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25
Q

what is a near miss and how does it reinforce the behaviour of gambling

A

gambling can even be positively reinforced by losing, as nearly winning (a ‘near miss’) can still create a feeling of excitement which is rewarding enough to reinforce the behaviour

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26
Q

what is a reinforcement schedule

A

the pattern through which a behaviour is reinforced

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27
Q

what is a partial reinforcement schedule

A

when the behaviour is not reinforced` every time it is completed

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28
Q

what is a variable reinforcement schedule

A

there is an uncertainty about if and when a behaviour will be reinforced

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29
Q

what is a fixed reinforcement schedule

A

there is a clear pattern to when the behaviour will be reinforced

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30
Q

what is a variable ratio schedule

A

a reward being given a certain amount of the time, but at unpredictable times
-e.g. slot machine

31
Q

explain gambling addiction through classical conditioning

A

gambling addicts will have learned to associate a range of stimuli with gambling- being exposed to these stimuli may result in a gambling addict experiencing the psychological desire to gamble

32
Q

limitation- learning theory’s exp for gambling- limited exp

A

research shows- many people gamble at some point but do not become addicted even in the same situations gamblers were in
-individual differences can’t be explained
-stimulus-response exp is too simplistic
-e.g. biopsychosocial exp needed-holistic exp

33
Q

strength- learning theorys exp for gambling addiction- real life applications

A

-covert sensitization- a year after receiving covert sensitisation, 90% of patients had reduced their gambling.
-useful applications and success provides indirect support for validity of exp
- study doesnt have a control group-limited support for learning theory’s exp

34
Q

what are cognitive biases

A

systematic errors in thought processes that lead gambling addicts to expect that continuing to gamble will be profitable

35
Q

what is the illusion of control

A

incorrectly judging the extent to which an outcome can be controlled
overestimating their ability to influence the outcome of an event
so overestimating their chances of winning

36
Q

what are faulty perceptions

A

distorted perception about the odds of winning-e.g. gambler’s fallacy- the belief that a losing streak increases the chance of a subsequent bet winning

37
Q

what are recall biases

A

tendency to remember wins and forget losses
-series of losses wont stop them from gambling
-has a memory of typically winning so form an expectation that the benefits outweigh the costs

38
Q

strength- cog exp for gambling addiction- research support

A

Griffiths - regular gamblers were more likely to make irrational utterances (e.g., saying they had tricked a fruit machine) than non-regulars
-evidence of an increased vulnerability to the illusion of control in regular gamblers compared to irregular gamblers
- use of a naturalistic setting strengthens its conclusions- high ecological validity so generalisable

39
Q

limitation- cog exp for gambling addiction- limited exp

A

large amount of variation- some types of gambling seem to be affected more by cognitive biases than other types
-not easily explained by the cognitive explanation- should be a clear relationship between the gambling addiction and the experience of cognitive biases- too simplistic
-biopsychosocial exp- holistic exp explains multiple pathways to addiction

40
Q

what are agonist drug therapies/ what is their function

A

bind with and activate receptors in the brain that are involved in the original addiction
- reduce withdrawal symptoms making it easier for addicts to abstain.
-e.g. varenicline to treat nicotine addiction

41
Q

what are antagonist drug therapies/ what is their function

A

bind with but do not activate receptors- used to prevent addictive behaviours from producing pleasurable effects
-e.g. naltrexone used to treat addiction to opioids
-also used to treat gambling addiction-reduces the release of dopamine into the reward pathway so gamblers may experience less reward from gambling

42
Q

strength- drug therapies for addiction- research support

A

meta-analysis by the Cochrane charity- varenicline is the most effective medication for tobacco cessation- three times more likely to quit on varenicline than with placebos
-provide clear support for the effectiveness of varenicline
-use of control group shows real – rather than just psychological - effects
-meta-analysis- large samples so representative
-not all drug therapies are equally effective in treating addiction

43
Q

limitation- drug therapies for addiction- side effects

A

most medications can cause side effects-mild nausea while taking varenicline, or diarrhoea and abdominal cramping with naltrexone
-undermines the effectiveness of a drug therapy as a treatment- patient may refuse to begin treatment or decide to abandon the treatment before they overcome their addiction
-ethical issues- potential for harm caused by the side effects

44
Q

outline aversion therapy (overt sensitization)

A

therapist will explain the treatment rationale and protocol- understanding and consent are important
- patient keeps a behavioural diary of their addiction-can be checked after sessions to see if therapy is effective
- patient is exposed to their addiction and pre-selected negative stimulus

45
Q

Outline covert sensitisation

A

therapist explains treatment rationale and protocol- understanding and consent are important
- patient keeps behavioural diary of their gambling- can be checked after sessions to see if therapy is effective
- therapist instructs the client to imagine themselves engaged in their addictive behaviour and then imagine an extremely unpleasant consequence- worse imagined situation is more effective therapy
-then instructed to imagine a situation in which they refuse the addictive behaviour and experience feeling relieved

46
Q

limitation- behaviour interventions- changing addictive behaviour

A

only work by seeking to replace positive associations with negative ones
-changing associations is incredibly difficult, associations formed over years- interventions only last weeks
-ignores other levels of explanations- cog explanations etc.

47
Q

comparison point-behavioural interventions- comparative research

A

compared effectiveness of behavioural interventions
-McConaghy -one-year follow up 90% of patients receiving covert sensitisation had reduced their gambling compared to only 30% of patients receiving aversion therapy
-findings suggest that both interventions may be effective- covert sensitisation is considerably more effective than aversion therapy at helping gambling addicts
-lack of control group- not possible to compare the effect of these interventions with the effect of not doing anything

48
Q

ideas behind CBT for addiction

A

addiction is a learnt response- stems from irrational thought processes and maladaptive behaviours
-new patterns new patterns of thinking and behaving are taught to avoid addictive behaviour

49
Q

what is functional analysis

A

identify high-risk situations (triggers) leading them to engage in their addictive behaviour

50
Q

why is functional analysis effective

A

Addictions involve habitual behaviours and patterns of thinking that occur in response to cues
-therapist can help the client find ways to change their thinking and behaviour by understanding the cues

51
Q

what is cognitive restructuring

A

therapist helps client examine thought processes which precede their addictive behaviour and challenge them

52
Q

why is cognitive restructuring effective

A

CBT views irrational patterns of thinking as a root cause for addiction
-Changing the patterns can produce changes in negative behaviours and emotions that support an addiction

53
Q

what is behavioural skills training

A

The therapist teaches the client skills that can help them avoid engaging in their addiction

54
Q

why is behavioural skills training effective

A

Addictions are often linked with a wide range of maladaptive behaviours
-changing these means the client can be supported to avoid situations which may lead them to engaging in their addiction

55
Q

strength- CBT for addiction - research support

A

Petry- participants receiving 8 sessions of CBT and attending Gamblers Anonymous (GA) gambled significantly less after 12 months than controls who only attended GA
- suggests that CBT may have long-term benefits
-use of a control group strengthens its internal validity and therefore adds weight to its conclusions
-findings cannot be generalised to other addictionsl

56
Q

limitation- CBT for addiction- reductionist approach

A

CBT focuses only on irrational thinking and maladaptive behaviours
-only focuses on addressing issues arising from only one level of explanation: the cognitive
-biopsychosocial- no single pathway to addiction
-CBT doesn’t address other levels of explanation

57
Q

what does the theory of planned behaviour explain

A

how humans can change a behaviour, such as quitting an addiction

58
Q

what are intentions influenced by (TPB)

A

attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural controls

59
Q

what are intentions (TPB)

A

person’s motivation to engage in a behaviour- strength of an intention can be influenced

60
Q

how is attitude formed (TPB)

A

by what a person believes to be the outcome of the behaviour, and the importance they attach to this outcome

61
Q

what are subjective norms (TPB)

A

individual’s beliefs of if others believe the individual should engage in the behaviour ;descriptive and injunctive norms
-descriptive norms-what a person believes about how often others engage in the behaviour
-injunctive norms refer to the person’s beliefs regarding- what other people think about the behaviour

62
Q

what is perceived behavioral control (TPB)

A

how easy a person believes carrying out a behaviour will be- higher PBC if they think it will be easy

63
Q

strength- TPB- ability to predict behaviour

A

Kelly- surveyed 168 alcoholics, intention to seek further treatment after initial detox was significantly correlated with how they responded to the attitude and perceived behavioural control questions
-intention to change the addictive behaviour is the result of contributing factors
-especially strong - large sample, high population validity

64
Q

limitation- TPB- methodological issues

A

research relies on self-report measures and correlational analysis of factors
-social desirability bias may lead addicts to give answers that do not reflect their actual behaviour/ thinking
-supporting research may lack validity -Evidence of correlation is not evidence of causation- could be explained by a third variable

65
Q

outline Prochaska’s six-stage model of behaviour change

A

quitting an addiction is a process that happens in stages
-progression through stages need not be linear
-effectiveness of an intervention for addiction depends partially on what stage the addict is in

66
Q

order of Prochaska’s six-stage model

A

pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance
-termination

67
Q

outline pre-preparation (six-stage model)

A

not thinking of changing their behaviour in the near-future (6 months time).
-may be aware what they are doing is unhealthy or may be in denial
-Intervention should focus on providing information and advice

68
Q

outline contemplation (six-stage model)

A

thinking about changing their behaviour in the near future (within 6 months) but not definitively
-weighing up the costs and benefits of taking action
-Information and advice should be the basis for any intervention.

69
Q

outline preparation (six-stage model)

A

decided the benefits outweigh the costs and decides to act, sometime in the next month
haven’t worked out what they should do to change their behaviour- Relapse is still a concern
-interventions should focus on constructing a plan

70
Q

outline action (six-stage model)

A

has done something within the last 6 months to change their behaviour
-action taken must be meaningful enough to actually reduce risk- Relapse is still a concern
-specific treatments will be useful at this stage- coping skills

71
Q

outline maintenance (six-stage model)

A

maintained some change of their behaviour for more than 6 months
-growing confidence that they can maintain this change
-relapse still a concern
-Effective intervention will focus on developing coping skills

72
Q

outline termination (six-stage model)

A

newly learnt behaviours become automatic
-person no longer feels tempted by their addiction and have complete confidence in their ability to maintain the change
-Relapse may still be possible, but it is no longer a concern
-intervention no longer required

73
Q

strength- six- stage model- applications

A

meta-analysis-Velicer- found that smoking cessation programs based on Prochaska’s model were more successful than programs not based on it
-provides indirect support for the validity of the model- interventions were more successful if they were tailored to the stage an addict is in as the model suggests
- if the model was incorrect, then interventions that used its ideas wouldn’t be effective
- meta-analysis -large sample so representative
-only shows Prochaska’s model has been useful for helping smokers

74
Q

limitation- six-stage model- focus on conscious decision making

A

evident in preparation stage- consciously decided the benefits of quitting outweigh the negatives, and consciously plan how to give up
- neglects that patterns of addictive behaviour become entrenched and semi-automated through repeated reward
-assumption that addicts can choose socially sensitive -suggests they choose to be addicts
-hard determinist approach to explaining addiction-avoids the attribution of responsibility and the potential for blame to the addict

psych (13 decks)

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