Addiction Flashcards
What is addiction?
a disorder in which an individual consumes a substance (nicotine) or engages in a particular behaviour (gambling) that is pleasurable but eventually becomes compulsive with harmful consequences.
Key features of an addiction
Key features are dependence (physical and psychological) tolerance and withdrawal syndrome.
What is meant by the term PSYCHOLOGICAL DEPENDENCE in relation to addiction (2 marks)
- This is the mental and emotional compulsion to keep taking a substance as the individual believes that they cannot cope with work and social life without a particular drug e.g. alcohol, nicotine or behaviour e.g. gambling. It may increase their pleasure or lesson their discomfort.
- Absence of the drug/behaviour causes the individual to feel anxious or irritable and this leads to a craving for the substance.
What is meant by the term PHYSICAL DEPENDENCE in relation to addiction (2 marks)
- Physical dependence is a state of the body that occurs when withdrawal syndrome is produced from stopping the substance use/behavior e.g. Nausea, headaches and shaking.
Explain what is meant by the term withdrawal syndrome (4 marks)
A sign of physical dependence
- the collection of psychological and physical symptoms an individual will experience when they no longer have a substance in their system/engage in a particular behaviour.
- Includes low mood, feeling nauseous, achy, in pain or experiencing tremors.
- When experiencing withdrawal, it is very unpleasant, so continuing to take the substance or engage in the behaviour is partly to avoid the withdrawal symptoms.
- Seriousness of the withdrawal syndrome can depend on a variety of factors:
- The substance used/type of behaviour
- The amount of substance consumed
-Drug use/behaviour pattern (how often)
Explain what is meant by the term tolerance (2 - 4 marks).
- Tolerance arises when you have taken a substance/maintained a certain behaviour for some time, and due to the repeated exposure the response to the substance/behaviour is reduced.
- When tolerance occurs an individual will need greater doses to feel the same physical and psychological effects.
- Examples of tolerance:
- Cellular tolerance- takes place when brain neurones adapt their responsiveness to higher levels of a substance
- Metabolic tolerance- takes place when a substance has been metabolised quicker and leaves the body.
- Behavioural tolerance- when individuals learn through experience to adjust their behaviour to compensate for the effects of a drug (walking slowly after drinking)
What is a risk factor?
Anything internal or external that increases the likelihood of an individual starting to use drugs or engage in addictive behaviour.
Risk factors in the development of an addiction
- Genetic vulnerability
- Stress
- Personality
- Family influences
- Peers
Outline genetic vulnerability as a risk factor in the development of an addiction
- Explained as an interaction between genes and environmental factors, as individuals will not become addicted unless they are exposed to the substance or an opportunity.
- 2 reasons that a genetic vulnerability can occur are:
D2 receptors
Metabolism - D2 RECEPTORS
In the brain, we have several receptors that communicate with neurotransmitters.
D2 receptor= responsible for communicating with Dopamine. The number of D2 receptors an individual has is determined by genetics.
Having FEWER of these receptors= associated with addiction bc leads to problems with experiencing pleasure from everyday activities (chocolate) therefore, they turn to more addictive substances (nicotine) to experience the same feeling of pleasure and compensate for deficiency.
- METABOLISM
Some individuals metabolise certain addictive substances faster than others= easier for them to become addicted- may need more to have the same effects.
Rate of metabolism is inherited through genes.
AO3- GENETIC VULNERABILITY- Who was RTS conducted by because they looked at adults adopted into families with at least one addicted family member?
P- RTS genetic vulnerability as a risk factor in addiction was conducted by Kendler et al (2012) using data from the National Swedish Adoption Study.
E- They looked at adults who had been adopted as children, from biological families in which at least one person had an addiction.
E- These children later had a significantly greater risk of developing an addiction themselves, compared to adopted individuals with no addicted parent in their biological families.
L- This gives validity to genetic vulnerability as a risk factor in addiction.
AO3- GENETIC VULNERABILITY- What is research often based on where C+E cannot be established?
P- Moreover, research into GENETIC VULNERABILITY as a risk factor into addiction often based on correlational research where C+E cannot be established.
E- Research has shown a link between risk factors such as genetics and addiction, but it often does not show which came first.
E- For example, it could be that addiction causes abnormalities in D2 receptors.
L- Therefore, the research lacks internal validity as it does not allow us to conclude that these factors do make someone more at risk of addiction.
Outline STRESS as a risk factor in the development of an addiction
- Where an individual experiences a state of arousal (physical and psychological state) that occurs when they believe they cannot cope with the perceived threat.
- May turn to addictive substances or behaviours as a form of self-medication for stress (to avoid pain or to cope).
- Periods of chronic, long lasting stress and traumatic life events in childhood have been linked with increased risk of developing an addiction.
- Anderson and Teicher (2008)- early experiences of severe stress have damaging effects on a young brain in a sensitive period of development and can create a vulnerability to later stress. Further stressful experiences in later life could trigger vulnerability and make it more likely that a person may self-medicate with substances or behavioural addictions.
AO3- STRESS- What is research often based on where C+E cannot be established?
P- Moreover, research into STRESS as a risk factor into addiction often based on correlational research where C+ E cannot be established.
E- Research has shown a link between risk factors such as stress and addiction, but it often does not show which came first.
E- For example, it could be that addiction causes an individual to become stressed (through loss of money, lack of sleep, effects on their job) rather than stress (actual or perceived ability to cope) causing addiction.
L- Therefore, the research lacks internal validity as it does not allow us to conclude that STRESS does make someone more at risk of addiction.
Outline PERSONALITY as a risk factor in the development of an addiction
- Psychologists proposed an addictive personality, suggesting a correlation between certain traits and addiction.
- Suggested that anti-social personality disorder leads to a high vulnerability to addiction, which can include neurotic and psychotic personality traits.
* High levels of neuroticism = High levels of anxiety, irritability, and low self-efficacy.
* High levels of psychoticism = aggressive, impulsive and sometimes emotionally detached – leading to risk-taking and sensation-seeking behaviour. - Individuals who have these pathological personalities are more likely to become addicts as the behaviour/substance helps them and offers relief.
AO3- PERSONALITY- What is the strength of personality as a group of ppts used a personality to support certain personality traits?
P- A strength of the personality as a risk factor in addictive behaviour comes from supporting research.
E- Eysenck and Gossop assessed the personality of a sample of 221 drug addicts and 310 non-addicted ppts using Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire.
E- They found evidence of high psychoticism and neuroticism scores in the addicted ppts compared to non-addicted ppts.
L- Therefore, this supports the role of neuroticism and psychoticism personality traits as risk factors in addictive behaviour giving validity to this risk factor.
AO3- PERSONALITY- What is research often based on where C+E cannot be established?
P- However, research into personality as a risk factor for addiction is often based on correlational research where cause and effect cannot be established.
E- Research has shown a link between risk factors such as personality and addiction, but it often does not show which came first.
E- For example, it could be that addiction causes an individual to show traits such as anxiety, irritability and impulsivity rather than these traits causing addiction.
L- Therefore, the research lacks internal validity as it does not allow us to conclude that STRESS does make someone more at risk of addiction.
Outline FAMILY INFLUENCE as a risk factor in the development of an addiction
- Family members can have an effect on an individual’s thoughts, feelings and behaviour’s over the course of their development.
- One family influence which can create vulnerability to addiction= perceived parental approval. If an adolescent believes their parents show positive attitudes towards a particular addictive substance/behaviour, then they will be more vulnerable to developing the addiction themselves.
- A psychologist found that final-year high school students who were allowed by their parents to drink alcohol at home were significantly more likely to drink excessively at college (uni) the following year.
+ adolescents who believe that their parents have little interest in monitoring their behaviour (peer relations) are significantly more likely to develop an addiction.
+ exposure within family life to a substance/behaviour creates a risk of developing an addiction. - Social Learning Theory could play a role. An individual could observe a family member (role model) engaging in addictive behaviour and imitate this behaviour as they identify with them and want to be like them.
AO3- FAMILY INFLUENCE- Who does RTS come from when a psychologist studied families where parents used cannabis?
P- Research to support family influences as a risk factor for addiction comes from Madras et al (2019).
E- She studied families, where the parents used cannabis. She found a strong positive correlation between the parents use of cannabis and the adolescents use of cannabis, nicotine, alcohol and opioids.
E- May show that the adolescents perceived that the parents were accepting of drug use so went on to use drugs themselves. It may also be because the adolescents abserved their parents using cannabis and modelled this behaviour.
L- Therefore this supports family influences as a risk factor for addiction.
Outline PEERS as a risk factor in the development of an addiction
- Peers= people who share their interests, age, similar backgrounds and social status.
- Peers can influence an individual’s development during adolescence as they spend more time with them, and less with their family.
- Some psychologists may argue that peers may act as gateways to addictive behaviour.
O’Connell et al (2009) suggests that adolescents are at risk of developing alcohol addiction due to the influence of their peers because of three major elements:
- Attitudes and Norms to drinking alcohol – The at risk individual’s attitudes and norms to drinking alcohol can be influenced by associating with groups of peers who drink alcohol (NSI and ISI)
- Opportunities to drink alcohol – The experienced peers provide more opportunities for the at risk individual to drink alcohol.
- Individual’s perception - The individual may over-estimate how much their peers drink, and therefore drink more to ‘keep up with them’.
AO3- PEERS- What is research often based on where C+E cannot be established?
P- A limitation of PEERS as a risk factor in addiction is based on correlational research where cause and effect cannot be established.
E- Research has shown a link between risk factors such as peers and addiction, but it often does not show which came first.
E- For example, it could be that addiction causes an individual to seek out peers who also share the same addictive behaviours/interests e.g. drug/alcohol misuse rather than their peers and norms making them engage in addictive behaviour.
L- Therefore, the research lacks internal validity as it does not allow us to conclude that PEERS do make someone more at risk of addiction.
OVERALL AO3- What has _______ as a risk factor in the development led to?
P: _______________ as risk factor in the development of addiction has led to practical applications.
E: This is because the principle that ___________________________________________________makes someone more at risk of addiction can be used for prevention strategies for addictive behaviours.
E: For example, TAILOR TO YOUR A01
* GENETICS: Identifying those with a genetic vulnerability may indicate who is at risk of addiction and could be used to develop individualised intervention programs.
* PEERS: Social Norms Marketing Advertising uses mass media to advertise how much young people really drink so it is not seen as the ‘norm’.
* STRESS: Interventions to help people manage and cope with stress
* PERSONALITY: Identifying those with APD may indicate who is at risk of addiction and could be used to develop individualized intervention programs
* FAMILY: Greater levels of parental monitoring to reduce likelihood of addiction
L: Therefore, awareness of the risk factors in the development of addiction is an important part of applied psychology.
THINK FURTHER: Furthermore, this may have positive implications for the economy. Alcohol misuse costs the economy £21.5 bn per year, successful prevention and treatment programmes will help individuals stop their addictive behaviour and therefore reduce negative impact of addiction on the economy.
OVERALL AO3- You can use risk factors as an alternative factor affecting development of an addiction. Give an example of this.
P An alternative risk factor is …
E This suggests …
E Rather than …
L Therefore, (MP) cannot be the sole explanation for (BP)
Two explanations for nicotine addiction
Brain neurochemistry- D2 Receptors
Learning theory- Cue Reactivity
Introduction for brain neurochemistry explanation including the role of dopamine- What does the explanation state?
- An internal, biological explanation for nicotine addiction, that relates to the chemicals inside the brain that regulate psychological functioning.
- States that nicotine addiction is formed due to the repeated activation of the brain’s reward pathway.
Process for dopamine reward pathway
- Individual smokes a cigarette and inhales nicotine. This reaches the bloodstream and activates nACh receptors in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the brain in less than 10 seconds.
- Dopamine is released from the VTA down the mesolimbic pathway to the D2 receptors on the nucleus accumbens (NAc) responsible for the feeling of pleasure, euphoria and relaxation, the individual will have increased alertness and decreased anxiety.
- When dopamine hits to NAc this triggers the release of more dopamine from the NAc down the mesocortical pathway to the PRE-FRONTAL CORTEX,
- responsible for what we pay attention to and decision making.
- The person then decides to smoke again to experience to the same pleasurable feelings and reduced anxiety.
- Therefore, explaining why people repeatedly smoke and become addicted to nicotine.
STRETCH- What does the brain neurochemistry explanation suggest happens so that the person is forced to smoke again?
- When a person is smoking, the nACh receptors are constantly desensitized.
- However, when the person does not smoke for a prolonged period, they become available again
- If the person is not smoking there is no nicotine to bind to them leading to withdrawal symptoms (anxiety and agitation).
- The person will then smoke again to avoid these unpleasant withdrawal symptoms.
AO3- What is RTS brain neurochemistry and the role of dopamine whereby psychologists studied smoking behaviour in Sz individuals?
P- Research to support brain neurochemistry and the role of dopamine was conducted by Mc Evoy.
E- They studied smoking behaviour in people with schizophrenia who were taking a drug (Haloperidol).
E- This drug is a dopamine antagonist by blocking dopamine receptors - lowering the level of dopamine activity in the brain. It was found that the people taking the drug showed a significant increase in smoking.
L- Therefore, supporting the role of dopamine as an explanation of addiction to nicotine, as the patients sought nicotine to increase their level of dopamine in the brain and experience euphoria.
AO3 STRETCH- What can McEvoy’s research into smoking behaviours in schizophrenics be criticised for as they only use schizophrenic ppts?
P- However, this research can be criticised for sample bias
E- as it uses ppts who have schizophrenia.
E- They may not be neurotypical and therefore it is difficult to generalise the findings on low dopamine activity and smoking behaviour to the target population of smokers without schizophrenia.
L- Therefore limiting how far this study can be used to support the role of dopamine in smoking.
AO3- What can brain neurochemistry as an explanation of nicotine addiction be criticised for because it reduces complex human behaviour of nicotine addiction?
P- Moreover, Brain neurochemistry as an explanation of nicotine addiction can be criticised for biological reductionism.
E- This is because the theory reduces the complex human behaviour of nicotine addiction down to dopamine levels within the brain.
E- This neglects a holistic approach, which takes into account how a person’s cultural and social context would influence and explain an individual’s nicotine addiction, for example, adolescents may develop a nicotine addiction due the wanting to fit in with a particular peer group, rather than the feeling of euphoria.
L- Therefore, the brain neurochemistry explanation of nicotine addiction may lack validity as it does not allow us to understand the behaviour in context.
One way the learning theory explain smoking behaviour is learnt?
Through operant conditioning
How is operant conditioning used to explain how an addiction is formed?
Explained by positive reinforcement.
The individual is rewarded with the feeling of euphoria when they inhale nicotine, due to its impact on the dopamine system in the brain’s reward pathway.
Therefore the person will smoke again to get the same reward of euphoria.
How is operant conditioning used to explain how an addiction is maintained?
Negative reinforcement can explain why an individual would continue to smoke.
Stopping smoking and stopping nicotine release leads to the appearance of withdrawal syndrome having unpleasant symptoms such as disturbed sleep, agitation and poor concentration.
Make it difficult for a smoker to abstain for long and therefore an individual would continue to smoke to avoid the unpleasant symptoms (negative reinforcement).
How can nicotine addiction be explained where a person may associate their nicotine addiction with pleasure?
Classical conditioning
Explain cue reactivity paired with classical conditioning
- Pleasurable effect of smoking (nicotine) = primary reinforcer bc of rewarding effect on the dopamine reward system (euphoria)- not learnt.
- Other stimuli repeatedly present at same time as/ before nicotine (a lighter, certain friends, places, time) over time become associated with this pleasurable feeling= SECONDARY REINFORCERS, bc they take on properties of the primary reinforcer (nicotine), and become rewarding in their own right.
- Secondary reinforcers also act as CUES, bc their presence produces a similar psychological (craving) and physiological (increased heart rate) REACTION to the nicotine– this is cue reactivity.
- Reactions make a person want to smoke again (seek primary reinforcement).
- Can explain why individuals sometimes relapse and/or maintain their addiction to nicotine.
AO3- Who is RTS learning theory of nicotine addiction, particularly cue reactivity, conducted by where they conducted a meta-analysis of studies into cue-reactivity?
P- Research to support the learning theory of addiction, in particular cue reactivity, was conducted by Carter and Tiffany (1999).
E- They conducted a meta-analysis of 41 studies into cue reactivity. They presented depdendent, non-dependent smokers and non-smokers with smoking related cues (e.g. lighters, ashtrays and cigarette packets). Self reported desire (cravings) was measured alongside heart rate (arousal).
E- They found that dependent smokers reacted most strongly to the cues for example increased heart rate and reported cravings to smoke.
L- This supports cue reactivity as an explanation for smoking behaviour because the dependent smokers had learned secondary associations between smoking related stimuli and the pleasurable effects of smoking
AO3- What is the learning theory of nicotine addiction criticised for because it states that an individual is controlled by reinforcements and associations that cause behaviour?
P- However, the learning theory of nicotine addiction is criticised for environmental determinism.
E- This is because it states that an individual is controlled by reinforcements and associations that cause behaviour.
E- For example, if a person is rewarded for smoking by the feeling of euphoria, they will inevitably smoke again to get the same reward. This neglects the role of free will and choice and an individual has, for example, a person may choose not to continue smoking despite the pleasurable reward, for health reasons.
L- The learning theory cannot account for this and therefore may not be a full explanation of smoking behaviour.
AO3- What has the learning theory of nicotine addiction led to?
P- The learning theory of nicotine addiction has practical applications.
E- This is because the principles of the theory, that addiction is caused by pleasant associations (cue reactivity) has led to behavioural interventions such as aversion therapy and covert sensitisation.
E- This is effective in treating nicotine addiction by encouraging a patient to re-associate nicotine with negative feelings for example, nausea, rather than a feeling of pleasure.
L- Therefore, the learning theory of smoking behaviour is an important part of applied psychology as it helps treat nicotine addiction in the real world.
Two explanations for gambling addiction
Learning theory- Partial and variable reinforcement
Cognitive theory- Cognitive bias
How can the learning theory explain how a gambling addiction is formed?
Using Social Learning Theory
EXPLAIN how can the learning theory explain how a gambling addiction is formed?
- Can form due to the experience of observing a role model being rewarded for their gambling behaviour (vicarious reinforcement).
- The reward could be their enjoyment in gambling, the occasional wins and financial returns they gain.
- This observation doesn’t have to be direct it can be through newspapers, magazine or the media. For example, hearing about someone winning big on the lottery could make a person more likely to gamble to gain the same reward.
How can the learning theory explain how a gambling addiction is maintained?
- Both positive and negative reinforcement can explain a gambling addiction.
- Gambling can provide two kinds of positive reinforcements; the reward of winning money and the ‘buzz’ excitement from gambling. Therefore, the gambling behaviour is likely to be repeated to gain the same reward.
- Gambling can also be seen as a distraction for some from anxieties of everyday life. Gambling can act as negative reinforcement to distract the individual from their unpleasant feelings and anxiety.
- Therefore, they will continue to engage in gambling behaviour to avoid the negative consequence of anxiety.
Explain partial reinforcement
- Where behaviour is reinforced only some of the time.
- If a person is rewarded every time they may become bored, therefore partial reinforcement enables a person to develop an addiction due to reinforcements being limited to only some of the time, and not consistently,
- therefore making the gambling more exciting (rewarding) as the individual is unsure when they will next win, so the behaviour does not extinguish, even when the wins stop.
Types of partial reinforcement
Fixed rate
Variable reinforcement
Explain fixed rate
A type of partial reinforcement where behaviour is reinforced a predictable amount of times
e.g. a slot machine paying out every tenth time. Or every 5 minutes.
This does NOT form an addiction.
Explain variable reinforcement
A type of partial reinforcement where behaviour is reinforced an unpredictable amount of times (at variable intervals)
e.g. you win at black jack on the 15th time, then on the 2nd time, then on the 7th etc.
This highly more reinforcing (rewarding) as it is highly unpredictable and exciting and therefore leads to stronger, more persistent gambling behaviour.
UNPREDICTABILITY=BUZZ=MORE ADDICTIVE
AO3- What is a strength of the learning theory explanation of gambling addiction because it has led to behavioural interventions?
P- A strength of the learning theory explanation of gambling addiction has practical applications.
E- This is because the principles of the theory that addiction is caused by pleasant associations between gambling and excitement, has led to behavioural interventions such as aversion therapy.
E- This is where gambling is re-associated with a negative stimulus i.e. electric shocks, rather than a feeling of pleasure and excitement.
L- Therefore, the learning theory as an explanation of gambling addiction is an important part of applied psychology as it helps treat gambling addictions in the real world.
AO3- What can the learning theory as an explanation of gambling addiction be criticised for?
P- However, the learning theory as an explanation of gambling addictions can be criticised for environmental determinism.
E- This is because is it states that an individual is controlled by reinforcements that cause behaviour.
E- For example, if person is rewarded for gambling by the feeling of euphoria, or the occasional win, they will gamble again to get the same reward. This neglects the role of free will and choice and individual has, for example, a person may choose not to continue gambling, despite the ‘buzz’ due to being aware of the potential financial losses.
L- The learning theory cannot account for this and therefore may not be a full explanation of gambling behaviour.
