A&P2 Exam Flashcards
What are the formed elements of blood?
Erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets
Erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and platelets (thrombocytes) are the key formed elements.
What is found in the buffy coat of centrifuged blood?
Leukocytes and platelets
The buffy coat separates the plasma from the red blood cells.
What is the difference between erythrocytes and leukocytes?
Erythrocytes are red blood cells that carry oxygen, while leukocytes are white blood cells involved in immune response.
What is hemoglobin and how many oxygen molecules can it carry?
Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that can carry up to four oxygen molecules.
What are the disorders of red blood cells?
Anemia, polycythemia, sickle cell disease
These disorders affect the number or function of red blood cells.
What are the disorders of white blood cells?
Leukemia, lymphomas, leukopenia
These disorders can affect white blood cell count and function.
What is the difference between granulocytes and agranulocytes?
Granulocytes have granules in their cytoplasm; agranulocytes do not.
What leukocytes are found in granulocytes?
Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils.
What leukocytes are found in agranulocytes?
Lymphocytes, monocytes.
What cells do platelets originate from?
Megakaryocytes.
What are the functions of platelets?
Blood clotting and hemostasis.
What are the ABO blood groups based on?
The presence or absence of antigens on red blood cells.
What is the Rh factor?
A protein that can be present on red blood cells; important for blood transfusions.
Which blood types can donate to and receive from others?
Universal donor: O-; Universal recipient: AB+.
Which hormone controls erythrocyte production?
Erythropoietin.
Where does hematopoiesis take place in the body?
Bone marrow.
What hormones stimulate the production of white blood cells?
Cytokines.
What is an antigen?
A substance that can trigger an immune response.
What is an antibody?
A protein produced by the immune system to neutralize antigens.
What does agglutination mean?
The clumping of cells in response to an antibody.
What is hemostasis?
The process of stopping bleeding, involving vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and coagulation.
What are the two lymphatic ducts?
Right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct.
What area does the right lymphatic duct drain?
Right upper quadrant of the body.
What area does the thoracic duct drain?
The rest of the body.
What is the anatomy of a lymph node?
Medulla, cortex, afferent vessels, efferent vessels.
What cell types are found in the medulla and cortex of lymph nodes?
Macrophages and lymphocytes.
What are the major functions of the spleen?
Filtering blood, recycling iron, and immune response.
What are the major functions of the thymus?
Maturation of T cells and immune system development.
What are the major functions of tonsils?
Protect against pathogens entering through the mouth and nose.
What is diapedesis?
The process by which white blood cells move out of the bloodstream.
What cell types are involved in the innate immune system?
Natural killer cells, phagocytes.
What are complement proteins?
Proteins that enhance the immune response.
What are interferons?
Proteins that help protect cells from viral infections.
What are pyrogens?
Substances that induce fever.
What is the difference between humoral and cellular immunity?
Humoral immunity involves antibodies; cellular immunity involves T cells.
What is a self-antigen?
An antigen that is recognized as part of the body.
What is a hapten?
A small molecule that can elicit an immune response only when attached to a larger carrier.
What are the differences between B cells and T cells?
B cells produce antibodies; T cells help in cell-mediated immunity.
What are antigen presenting cells (APCs)?
Cells that display antigens to T cells, including dendritic cells and macrophages.
What are the functions of plasma B cells?
Produce antibodies in response to antigens.
What are the functions of memory B cells?
Provide long-term immunity by remembering past infections.
What is naturally acquired active immunity?
Immunity gained through natural infection.
What is artificially acquired active immunity?
Immunity gained through vaccination.
What is naturally acquired passive immunity?
Immunity gained through maternal antibodies.
What is artificially acquired passive immunity?
Immunity gained through antibody transfer (e.g., serum).
What are antibodies (Igs)?
Proteins produced by B cells that recognize and bind to specific antigens.
What are the five major antibody classes?
IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, IgD.
What are the functions of cytotoxic T cells?
Kill infected or cancerous cells.
What are the functions of helper T cells?
Assist other immune cells in responding to pathogens.
What are the functions of regulatory T cells?
Maintain immune tolerance and prevent autoimmunity.
What are the functions of memory T cells?
Provide long-term immunity by remembering past infections.
What are the different types of grafts or transplants?
Autografts, isografts, allografts, xenografts.
What are major disorders of immunity?
Autoimmune diseases, immunodeficiency disorders.
What are the structures of the upper respiratory tract?
Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx.
What are the structures of the lower respiratory tract?
Trachea, bronchi, lungs.
What is the conducting zone of the respiratory system?
Passageways that transport air but do not participate in gas exchange.
What is the respiratory zone?
Structures where gas exchange occurs (alveoli).
What happens during inspiration?
Diaphragm contracts, thoracic cavity expands, air is drawn into the lungs.
What happens during expiration?
Diaphragm relaxes, thoracic cavity decreases, air is pushed out of the lungs.
What are the respiratory volumes?
Tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, residual volume.
What is pulmonary ventilation?
The movement of air in and out of the lungs.
What is external respiration?
Gas exchange between the lungs and blood.
What is gas transport?
The movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood.
What is internal respiration?
Gas exchange between blood and tissues.
What factors control the respiration rate?
Carbon dioxide levels, oxygen levels, pH.
What are the major respiratory disorders?
Asthma, COPD, pneumonia.
What are the major organs of the alimentary canal?
Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anus.
What are the functions of accessory organs of the digestive system?
Aid in digestion (liver, pancreas, gallbladder).
How many sets of teeth do humans have in their lifetime?
Two sets: primary (deciduous) and permanent.
What are the major functions of the digestive system?
Ingestion, propulsion, mechanical breakdown, chemical digestion, absorption, defecation.
What are the steps of digestion for carbohydrates?
Mouth (salivary amylase), stomach (acid), small intestine (pancreatic amylase).
What are the steps of digestion for proteins?
Stomach (pepsin), small intestine (proteases).
What are the steps of digestion for lipids?
Small intestine (bile salts, lipase).
What are the major nutrients?
Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals.
What is metabolism?
The sum of all chemical reactions in the body.
What are catabolic reactions?
Reactions that break down molecules for energy.
What are anabolic reactions?
Reactions that build up molecules for growth.
What is cellular respiration?
The process of converting glucose into ATP.
What are the three main metabolic pathways in cellular respiration?
Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain.
Where does glycolysis occur?
In the cytoplasm.
Where does the Krebs cycle occur?
In the mitochondria.
Where does the electron transport chain occur?
In the inner mitochondrial membrane.
What is hypoglycemia?
Low blood sugar levels.
What is hyperglycemia?
High blood sugar levels.
What are the steps of carbohydrate metabolism?
Glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, glycogenesis.
What are the steps of fat metabolism?
Lipid breakdown, beta-oxidation, ketogenesis.
What are the steps of protein metabolism?
Protein synthesis, deamination, urea cycle.
Which organ is the key metabolic organ?
Liver.
What is glycogenesis?
The formation of glycogen from glucose.
What is glycogenolysis?
The breakdown of glycogen to release glucose.
What is gluconeogenesis?
The formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.
What are HDLs and LDLs?
High-density lipoproteins (good cholesterol) and low-density lipoproteins (bad cholesterol).
What does body energy balance mean?
The balance between caloric intake and expenditure.
What is basal metabolic rate (BMR)?
The rate of energy expenditure at rest.
What hormone determines BMR?
Thyroid hormone.
What is total metabolic rate (TMR)?
The total amount of energy expended by the body in a given time.
What are the steps of body temperature regulation?
Heat production, heat loss, thermoregulation mechanisms.
What are the subdivisions of the small intestine?
Duodenum, jejunum, ileum.
What specialized structures increase surface area in the small intestine?
Villi and microvilli.
How many teeth are found in children?
20 primary teeth.
How many teeth are found in adults?
32 permanent teeth.
