A&P 2 Flashcards
List the major and accessory structures of the eye and their functions
The major structures include the cornea, lens, retina, and iris. Accessory structures include eyelids, eyelashes, and lacrimal glands, which protect and lubricate the eye.
List the three layers of the eye, the function of each layer, and structures found in each layer
The three layers are: 1) Sclera (protective outer layer), 2) Choroid (vascular layer providing nutrients), 3) Retina (inner layer containing photoreceptors).
Describe what rods and cones are and where these are found in the eye
Rods are photoreceptors sensitive to low light, while cones detect color and detail. Both are found in the retina.
Describe what the optic disc is
The optic disc is the point where the optic nerve exits the eye, creating a blind spot.
Describe what the fovea centralis is
The fovea centralis is a small pit in the retina that provides the clearest vision due to a high concentration of cones.
List the order of the parts through which light passes as it enters the eye
Light passes through the cornea, aqueous humor, pupil, lens, vitreous humor, and then reaches the retina.
Identify the pathway along which an image received by the retina will travel into the brain
The pathway is: retina → optic nerve → optic chiasm → optic tract → thalamus → visual cortex.
List the major structures of the ear and their functions
Major structures include the outer ear (collects sound), middle ear (transmits sound), and inner ear (converts sound to nerve signals).
Describe the difference between the external, middle, and inner ear and what structures are found in each area
The external ear includes the pinna and ear canal; the middle ear contains the ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes); the inner ear includes the cochlea and vestibular system.
List the ossicles of the ear in order
The ossicles are: malleus, incus, stapes.
Identify which organs of the ear contain dynamic equilibrium receptors and which contain static equilibrium receptors
The semicircular canals contain dynamic equilibrium receptors, while the utricle and saccule contain static equilibrium receptors.
Identify which organ of the ear contains hearing receptors
The cochlea contains the hearing receptors.
List what type of chemoreceptor is responsible for sense of smell
Olfactory receptors are responsible for the sense of smell.
List and describe the different types of papillae on the tongue
The types of papillae are: 1) Fungiform (taste buds), 2) Circumvallate (large taste buds), 3) Foliate (taste buds on sides), 4) Filiform (no taste buds, for texture).
List what the five taste sensations are
The five taste sensations are sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami.
Describe the major function of the endocrine system as a whole
The major function is to regulate body processes through hormone secretion.
Identify the major endocrine glands covered in the powerpoint and what hormones each one produces and what hormones they release
Major glands include: 1) Pituitary (growth hormone), 2) Thyroid (thyroxine), 3) Adrenals (cortisol), 4) Pancreas (insulin).
Describe the difference between direct gene activation and the second-messenger system
Direct gene activation involves hormones entering cells and affecting gene expression; the second-messenger system uses intermediaries to relay signals within cells.
List the three different stimuli responsible for prodding endocrine glands into action, and which of the three is the most common stimulus
The three stimuli are: hormonal, humoral, and neural; hormonal is the most common.
List the function of each hormone covered in the powerpoint
Functions include: 1) Growth hormone (growth), 2) Thyroxine (metabolism), 3) Cortisol (stress response), 4) Insulin (blood sugar regulation).
List and describe the endocrine system disorders
Disorders include diabetes (insulin deficiency), hyperthyroidism (excess thyroid hormone), and Addison’s disease (cortisol deficiency).
Identify the coverings of the heart
The coverings are the pericardium, which includes the fibrous and serous layers.
Identify the walls of the heart
The walls consist of the epicardium (outer), myocardium (muscle), and endocardium (inner).
Identify the major structures of the heart
Major structures include the atria, ventricles, valves, and major blood vessels.
Describe the pathway of blood flow through the heart
Blood flows from the body into the right atrium, through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle, then to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries, returning to the left atrium, through the mitral valve to the left ventricle, and out to the body via the aorta.
Describe the difference between pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation
Pulmonary circulation moves blood between the heart and lungs; systemic circulation moves blood between the heart and the rest of the body.
List which vessels supply the heart muscle with oxygen
The coronary arteries supply the heart muscle with oxygen.
Identify the structures of the intrinsic conduction system of the heart and describe their functions
Structures include the sinoatrial (SA) node (pacemaker), atrioventricular (AV) node, bundle of His, and Purkinje fibers, which coordinate heartbeats.
Describe what the two heart sounds are and what they are caused by
The two heart sounds are ‘lub’ (closure of AV valves) and ‘dub’ (closure of semilunar valves).
Describe what systole and diastole are
Systole is the contraction phase of the heart; diastole is the relaxation phase.
List what the average heart rate is
The average heart rate is about 60 to 100 beats per minute.
Define what stroke volume and cardiac output are and how to calculate cardiac output
Stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped by the heart per beat; cardiac output is stroke volume multiplied by heart rate.
Identify the layers of a blood vessel and list the components of each layer
Layers include: 1) Tunica intima (endothelium), 2) Tunica media (smooth muscle), 3) Tunica externa (connective tissue).
Describe the difference between arteries, veins, arterioles, venules, and capillaries
Arteries carry blood away from the heart; veins carry blood to the heart; arterioles are small arteries; venules are small veins; capillaries are tiny vessels for exchange.
Define what valves are
Valves are structures that prevent the backflow of blood in the heart and veins.
Define what microcirculation is how it occurs
Microcirculation is the flow of blood through the smallest vessels (capillaries) and occurs through diffusion and filtration.
Identify the major arteries and veins shown in the powerpoint
Major arteries include the aorta and carotid arteries; major veins include the superior and inferior vena cavae.
Describe what the foramen ovale is
The foramen ovale is a fetal opening between the right and left atria that closes after birth.
Define what systolic and diastolic blood pressure is
Systolic blood pressure is the pressure during heartbeats; diastolic blood pressure is the pressure between heartbeats.
List and describe the disorders of the cardiovascular system covered in the powerpoint
Disorders include hypertension (high blood pressure), atherosclerosis (artery hardening), and heart failure (inability to pump effectively).
Identify which ventricle has thicker walls
The left ventricle has thicker walls to pump blood to the entire body.
