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A&P 1 > A&P Exam 4 > Flashcards

A&P Exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the nervous system

A

the master controlling and communicating system of the body

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2
Q

structural classification

A

based on where a component is located

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3
Q

central nervous system

A

CNS composed of the brain and the spinal chord

acts as an integration and command center

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4
Q

peripheral nervous system

A 
PNS anything outside the CNS 
mostly nerves (sensory cells) 
cranial nerves (spinal nerves)
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5
Q

What is the function of nerves

A

connect the body to the CNS

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6
Q

functional classification

A

based on how a component is regulated

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7
Q

somatic nervous system

A

targets the skeletal muscles

under conscious control

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8
Q

autonamic nervous system

A

targets smooth muscle and cardiac muscle

under unconscious control

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9
Q

neurons

A

a type of cell present in neural tissue

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10
Q

nervous tissue

A

highly cellular
high rate of metabolism
needs lots of glucose and O2
poor capacity for repair

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11
Q

what are neurons for

A

the functional unit of the nervous system

(smallest piece that still works

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12
Q

what is the structure of neurons

A

large cells with long processes

do not divide (amitotic) (few exceptions)

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13
Q

how many neurons does the body contain

A

10^12 neurons

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14
Q

where are neurons located

A

mostly in brain

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15
Q

what is the life of a neuron

A

long lived

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16
Q

cell body of a neuron

A

also called the soma

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17
Q

what does the cell body of a neuron do

A

portion that controls the bulk of the cytoplasm

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18
Q

what does the cell body of a neuron contain

A

most organelles

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19
Q

dendrites

A

short branching extensions of a neuron

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20
Q

where do you find dendrites

A

off of cell body

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21
Q

what are dendrites for

A

input end of the neuron

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22
Q

axon

A

long and thin single extension

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23
Q

how long is the axon in a neuron

A

up to 3 feet long

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24
Q

how many axons in a neuron

A

only one

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25
Q

what is the axon in the neuron for

A

output end of the neuron

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26
Q

where is the axon located

A

arises from the cell body at the axon hillock

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27
Q

what is the plasma membrane of an axon called

A

axolemma

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28
Q

how many major projections do neurons produce

A

3 or more (an axon and a cluster of dendrites)

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29
Q

bipolar neurons

A

optic relay

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30
Q

unipolar neurons

A

sensory

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31
Q

axon terminals

A

hold and release neurotransmitters (granules)

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32
Q

where are the axon terminals found

A

at the distal tip of the axon

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33
Q

where are the axon terminals

A

at the synapse which is a connection between two neurons

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34
Q

myelin sheath

A

white fatty segmented layer that can be around an axon

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35
Q

what does the myelin sheath do

A

electrically omsulates the axon

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36
Q

what is myelin sheet composed of

A

schwann cells which wrap around axon about 200xs and do not touch neighbors

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37
Q

nodes of Ranvier

A

spaces between cells in myelin sheath shcwann cells

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38
Q

cell structures particular to a neuron

A 
cell body
dendrites
axon
axon terminals
myelin sheath
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39
Q

nucleus

A

a cluster of neuron cell bodies in CNS

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40
Q

ganglion

A

a cluster of neuron cell bodies in PNS

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41
Q

TRACT

A

a bundle of neuron extensions in the CNS

a bundle of axons or long dendrites

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42
Q

nerve

A

a bundle of neuron extensions in the PNS

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43
Q

white matter

A

portions of CNS that appear white to the naked eye composed mostly of myelinated axons

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44
Q

gray matter

A

portions of the CNS composed mostly of cell bodies or unmyelinated axons

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45
Q

where do neurons carry information

A

to or from the brain

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46
Q

afferent neurons

A

bring information to brain

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47
Q

efferent neurons

A

take information out of brain

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48
Q

interneurons

A

stay within the brain

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49
Q

neuroglia

A

cells in nervous tissue that support neurons

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50
Q

neuroglia characteristics

A

smaller than neurons but present in much greater number

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51
Q

astrocytes

A

found in the CNS most abundant

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52
Q

what do astrocytes to

A

very versatile
process extracellular fluid
connect neurons to capillary beds
support axonal growth and guidance

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53
Q

microglia

A

found in the CNS

a type of fixed macrophage

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54
Q

microglia function

A

immune cells to engulf and destroy

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55
Q

ependymal cells

A

found in CNS

line fluid filled cavities of brain and spinal chord

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56
Q

ependymal cells

A

cilia on these cels wave to circulate cerebral spinal fluid

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57
Q

olgodentrocytes

A

found in CNS

forms the myelin sheath in the brain

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58
Q

satellite cells

A

in the PNS
surround neuron cell bodies in ganglia
similar in function to astrocytes

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59
Q

schwan cells

A

in the PNS
wrap tightly around axons in nerves
forms myelin sheaths in PNS

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60
Q

basic principles of electricity

A

same for both natural and artificial circuits

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61
Q

manmade circuits

A

we transfer charge using electrons

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62
Q

the human body circuits

A

transfer charge using ions (electrolytes)

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63
Q

voltage

A

V measure potential energy of separated charges (+ - )

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64
Q

what does voltage measure in

A

volts

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65
Q

voltage aka

A

cell potential or membrane potential

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66
Q

current

A

I measures the flow of electrical charge from one point to another

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67
Q

what do currents measure in

A

Amperes

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68
Q

charge

A

Q measures the total number of charged particles moved by a current

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69
Q

what does charge measure in

A

coulumbs

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70
Q

resistance

A

R the hindrance or opposition to the flow of ions

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71
Q

resistance formula

A

1/R = G = CONDUCTANCE

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72
Q

conductance measure

A

it’s measures in suemens

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73
Q

what is conductance

A

how easy it is to flow charge through a channel

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74
Q

ohm’s law

A

voltage is linked to current resistance

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75
Q

what does ion flow lead to

A

voltage changes

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76
Q

ohm’s law process

A

no voltage change without a current
form a current by flowing ions
ions flow through open channels

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77
Q

ion channels in the plasma membrane

A

allow polar ions to cross the non polar membrane

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78
Q

how are channels named

A

by the substance that passes through them
or
channels are also named by how they open

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79
Q

examples of naming channels by their substance pass

A

Sodium channels or glucose channels

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80
Q

examples for channels named by how they open

A

upon the stimulus that opens them

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81
Q

channel types

A

ligand-gated
voltage-gated
mechanically-gated
leak

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82
Q

ligan-gated channels

A

binding of a chemical causes channel to open

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83
Q

different name for logan-gated channels

A

chemically gated

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84
Q

example of ligand-gated channels

A

acetylcholine receptor

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85
Q

voltage-gated channels

A

a large change in charge causes channel to open

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86
Q

example of voltage gated channels

A

calcium channel in t-tubule

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87
Q

mechanically-gated channels

A

a physical stimulus opens channel

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88
Q

example of mechanically-gated channels

A

channel in inner ear

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89
Q

leak channels

A

always open found on neurons
low conductance
leaks potassium

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90
Q

where is ligand dated channels found

A

axon dendrites

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91
Q

where are voltage-gated channels

A

axon hillock

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92
Q

ion movement

A

ions can cross the plasma membrane when a channel is open ONLY

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93
Q

what direction do ions from when a channel opens

A

either way in to cell or out of cell

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94
Q

how is the direction of flow predictable

A

using chemical gradient

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95
Q

electrical influence in predicting flow direction

A

charge interaction (+, -) opposites attract

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96
Q

chemical influence in predicting flow

A

concentration gradient - ions diffuse (move to lower concentration)

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97
Q

depolarization

A

event that moves voltage towards 0mV

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98
Q

hyperpolarization

A

event that moves voltage away from 0mV

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99
Q

repolarization

A

event that moves voltage back to its’ original resting value to -70mV

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100
Q

a neuron at rest

A

a neuron that is not being actively stimulated

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101
Q

sodium-potassium ATP-ase pump

A

pump is always on
pump establishes an imbalance of ions
pump is electrogenic

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102
Q

what does NA/K ATP-ase pump do at rest

A

forces out 3 NA while bringing in 2 K at the loss of 1 ATP

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103
Q

cations

A

possitively charged

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104
Q

anions

A

negatively charges

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105
Q

A-

A

large ions organic molecules too bigg to fit through channel

  • proteins
  • organic acids
  • vitamins
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106
Q

Na distribution at rest

A

inside the cell 15mM

outside cell 140 mM

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107
Q

Potassium distribution at rest

A

140mM inside cell

5mM outside cell

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108
Q

Cl- distribution at rest

A

10mM inside cell

120 mM outside cell

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109
Q

A- distribution at rest

A

100mM inside cell

0.2 mM outside cell

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110
Q

resting cell potential

A

all gated channels are closed
leak channel is always open
pump is always on
resting voltage sits at -70mV

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111
Q

what will a stimulated neuron produce

A

an action potential

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112
Q

what is the interior of the cell like

A

negatively charged

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113
Q

what happens to unpaired ions

A

get left behind

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114
Q

resting neurons

A

sit at -70mV

all gated channels are closed and not producing currents

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115
Q

what happens when voltage-gated Na channels open

A

Na flows in to cell

causes voltage to move from -70mV all the way up to +30mV

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116
Q

What happens when voltage-gated K channels open

A

changes voltage from +30mV to -75 mV

117
Q

K efflux

A

causes a short hyperextension period

- leak channel and NA/K ATP-ase reestablishes resting conditions from -75mV to -70 mV

118
Q

Action potential conduction

A

when an action potential is produced it moves along a neuron

119
Q

where do new axon potentials form at

A

always at the axon hillock

120
Q

how do action potentials move

A

down axon, away from cell body

121
Q

where does action potential arrive

A

at axon terminals

122
Q

signaling strength

A

action potential does not change - it is all the same size

123
Q

what do we do since we cannot send bigger action potentials

A

we must send more of them more often at an increased frequency

124
Q

conduction velocity

A

the speed an action potential travels down the axon

125
Q

factors of conduction velocity

A

axon diameter

degrees of myelination

126
Q

axon diameter

A

bigger has faster conduction velocity

smalles is slower conduction velocity

127
Q

degree of myelination

A

more myelin conducts faster
less myelin is slower
it’s possible to have no myelin

128
Q

saltatory conduction

A

how an action potential moves down an axon with myelin present

129
Q

what does myelin do to conduction

A

myelin increases the resistance of the membrane

forces action potential in to neuron and it travels much faster

130
Q

how does an action potential travel in myelin

A

it reappears at plasma membrane in the nodes of Ranvier

action potential is allowed to jump ahead

131
Q

multiple sclerosis

A

auto immune disease

132
Q

what happens with multiple sclerosis

A

immune system kills schwan cells

causes demylenation of axones

133
Q

what happens to action potential in multiple sclerosis

A

slows and can even stop

134
Q

what does MS cause

A

causes progressive muscle weakness eventually paralysis

135
Q

neuron classification

A

based on conduction velocity

136
Q

group A fibers

A

large diameter axons
large amount of myelin
fastest conduction neurons (over 300 mph)

137
Q

group B fibers

A

small diameter axons
some myelin
slower conducting neurons (at 30 mph)

138
Q

what system are group A fibers used by

A

somatic nervous system

139
Q

what system does group B fibers use

A

ANS

140
Q

group C fibers

A

smallest diameter axon
no myelin
slowest conducting neurons (2 mph)

141
Q

what are group C fibers used by

A

AND in local reflex arcs

142
Q

synapse

A

junction between two neurons or between a neuron and muscle cell

143
Q

electrical synapses

A

modified gap junctions
common during development
can be in CNS as adults

144
Q

what do electrical synapses use

A

channel to allow ions to flow between two cells
little control over signaling
bidirectional communication

145
Q

chemical synapses

A

uses a neurotransmitter

146
Q

how much control is there in chemical signaling

A

a lot

147
Q

what type of communication in chemical synapses

A

unidirectional

one particular neuron is always in charge

148
Q

presynaptic cell

A

neuron before the synapse
cell has produced an action potential
axon terminals are at the synapse

149
Q

postsynaptic cell

A

comes after the synapse
dendrites are at the synapse
cell is receiving neurotransmitter

150
Q

signaling via chemical synapses for presynaptic cell

A

action potential arrives at axon terminals
Ca channels open
Ca enters Ca in neuron allow granules of neurotransmitter to fuse
neurotransmitter is released in to the synaptic cleft

151
Q

signaling via chemical synapses in postsynaptic cell

A

neurotransmitter binds to its specific receptor on postsynaptic cell (acetylcholine)
the acetylcholine receptor is a ligan-gated channel
a small Na current moves in to the cell
the affect on postsynaptic cell ends when neurotransmitter goes away

152
Q

how can a neurotransmitter go away

A

can be taken back into presynaptic cell

can be destroyed

153
Q

What is the name of the enzyme that destroys neurotransmitter

A

Acetylcholinesterase

154
Q

What is it called when a neurotransmitter is taken back in

A

Reuptake

155
Q

graded potentials

A

release of neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft causes the postsynaptic cell body to produce a current

156
Q

what is a small current called

A

a graded current

157
Q

what will a small current (graded current) cause

A

small changes in voltage called postsynaptic potentials or migrated potentials

158
Q

graded potentials fading

A

they fade rapidly with time and distance

159
Q

how are graded potentials produced

A

using ligand-gated channels

low conductance channels

160
Q

where are graded potentials formed

A

in the dendrites and the cell body

161
Q

graded potential strength

A

vary

it is directly proportional to the amount of neurotransmitter in synaptic cleft

162
Q

EPSP

A

excitatory postsynaptic potential

163
Q

what are EPSP for

A

always depolarizes postsynaptic cell and changed voltage toward threshold

164
Q

IPSP

A

inhibitory postsynaptic potential

165
Q

what are IPSP for

A

always hyper polarizes the postsynaptic cell and moves cell voltage away from threshold

166
Q

summation

A

a postsynaptic neuron feels a greater effect from a presynaptic cell when the stimulus us strong or if stimuli are frequent

167
Q

temporal summation

A

add graded potentials that are near in time

168
Q

what do presynaptic neurons produce during temporal summation

A

many graded potentials in a row

169
Q

spatial summation

A

add graded potentials that are near in distance

170
Q

what do multiple presynaptic neurons produce in spatial summation

A

graded potential at the same time

171
Q

result of input

A

postsynaptic neuron must decide whether or not to form its own action potential

172
Q

how does a postsynaptic neuron decide to form its own action potential

A

based on the sum of graded potentials
can have EPSP or IPSPS
can sum several small graded potentials or only one

173
Q

when will a postsynaptic cell for its own action potential

A

if it depolarizes to -55mV at axon hillock

174
Q

subthreshold potential

A

some EPSP are too weak to trigger a new action potential -65mV to -56mV

175
Q

synapse localization

A

a synapse that is closer to the postsynaptic axon hillock has a greater effect

176
Q

axodendritic synapse

A

connects to dendrites

177
Q

axosomatic synapse

A

connects to cell body

178
Q

axoaxonic synapse

A

connects to axon hillock

179
Q

neurotransmitters

A

are signaling chemicals released from the axon terminals

180
Q

how many neurotransmitters can a neuron release

A

one or several

181
Q

receptors

A

each neurotransmitter has its own

182
Q

what does a direct acting neurotransmitter do

A

opens a channel

183
Q

what does an indirect neurotransmitter do

A

activates second messenger pathways

no channels- intracellular signaling cascades - long lasting effects

184
Q

acetylcholine

A

first neurotransmitter ever identified

185
Q

what is acetylcholine used in

A

neuromuscular junction as part of the ANS

186
Q

Norepinephrine

A

pleasure neurotransmitter in the CNS

used as part of the ANS

187
Q

what can enhance norepinephrine release

A

amphetamines

188
Q

what does cocaine and some antidepressants cause for norepinephrine

A

removal from synaptic cleft is inhibited

189
Q

dopamine

A

pleasure neurotransmitter in CNS

linked to several disorders

190
Q

what disease is dopamine deficient in

A

parkinsons disease

191
Q

what disease is linked with increased activity of dopamine

A

schizophrenia

192
Q

serotonin

A

regulates mood

more of it makes you happy

193
Q

what does prozac and ecstacy cause to serotonin

A

blocks the removal of it from the synaptic cleft

194
Q

what is serotonin released by

A

food mostly sugary foods

195
Q

what are Biogenic Amines

A

Norepinephrine
dopamine
serotonin

196
Q

GABA

A

gaba-aminobutyric acid

197
Q

what does GABA do

A

major inhibitory neurotransmitter of the brain

opens CL channel - hyper polarizing - forms IPSPS

198
Q

glutamate (MSG)

A

major excitatory neurotransmitter forms EPSPS

several subtypes of channels

199
Q

one subtype of glutamate channels

A

involved with learning and memory

200
Q

neurotoxicity

A

brain can suffer damage due to excessive glutamate release

return of O2 causes so much glutamate signaling that neurons die

201
Q

type of amino acids

A

GABA

Glutamate

202
Q

endorphins

A

inhibit pain under stressful conditions

203
Q

examples of endorphins release

A

long strenuous exercise and childbirth

204
Q

tachykinins

A

involved with pain transmissions

205
Q

where are tachykinins released from

A

damaged tissues

206
Q

the brain

A

one of the primary structures of the CNS

207
Q

what does the brain do

A

acts as a major control center of the body

208
Q

what is the brain composed of

A

very soft tissue

209
Q

how much does the brain weight

A

3-4 lbs in an average adult

210
Q

how is the brain composed

A

4 major regions

211
Q

4 regions of the brain

A

cerebral hemisphere, brain stem, cerebellum, diencephalen

212
Q

ventricles

A

fluid filled cavities with the brain

are continuous

213
Q

what are the ventricles filled with

A

cerebral spinal fluid (CSF)

214
Q

what are ventricles lined with

A

ependymal cells that help to circulate the CSF

215
Q

lateral ventricle

A

longest C-shaped deep to cerebral hemisphere

216
Q

third ventricles

A

deep to diencephalon

217
Q

fourth ventricles

A

deep to brain stem
continuous with central canal of the spinal cord
single channel

218
Q

cerebral hemispheres

A

form the superior and superficial portion of the brain

longest part of the brain 80% of brain mass composed of 3 different areas

219
Q

cerebral cortex

A

superficial area of grey matter

absolute type of brain

220
Q

cerebral white matter

A

composed of deep white matter myelinated axons

221
Q

basal nuclei

A

deep islands of grey matter found within white matter

222
Q

folding

A

the surface of the cerebral hemispheres is extensively folded

223
Q

what is the purpose of folding in the brain

A

increases the surface area of the brain

holds more neurons in brain making us more intelligent

224
Q

a gyros (many gyri)

A

an elevated ridge of brain tissue

225
Q

a sulcus (many sulci)

A

a shallow groove in brain tissue

226
Q

a fissure

A

deeper groove in brain tissue

227
Q

lobes

A

each cerebral hemisphere is divided by sulci into five distinct lobes

228
Q

4 superficial lobes

A

frontal
parietal
temporal
occipital

229
Q

1 deep lobe

A

insula

230
Q

central sulcus

A

separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe

231
Q

lateral sulcus

A

outlines the top of the temporal lobe

232
Q

cerebral cortex

A

the outermost layer of the cerebral hemisphere

233
Q

mapping

A

an approximation

234
Q

functional areas of the cerebral cortex

A

a map of the cerebral cortex localizes regions with different functions

235
Q

what does the cerebral cortex control

A

most somatic processes

conscious portion of brain

236
Q

3 major types of areas in the cerebral cortex

A

motor areas - sensory areas - association areas

237
Q

sensory areas

A

vision, smell, taste, hearing, touch

238
Q

cerebral cortex control

A

composed of two equivalent but not identical sides

left and right hemispheres

239
Q

left and right hemispheres

A

each side is concerned with the opposite side of the body

called contra lateral control

240
Q

ipsilated

A

same side

241
Q

what is the left hemisphere for

A

more logical, better at math, controls language

242
Q

what is the right hemisphere for

A

more artistic, visual side of brain, creative side, nonverbal language

243
Q

motor areas

A

control voluntary (somatic) movements

244
Q

primary motor cortex

A

used to stimulate skeletal muscles

- initiating voluntary movements

245
Q

where is the primary motor cortex found

A

in the posterior portion of the lobe

246
Q

what do the primary motor cortex contain

A

very large neurons (pyramidal cells)

247
Q

what happens when the primary motor cortex is damaged

A

will result in paralysis

248
Q

what do neurons that are located together do

A

move a particular body part
important parts are given more neurons
(hand, face, tongue)

249
Q

homunculus

A

a distorted odd looking figure in the mapping

250
Q

epilepsy what is it due to

A

excess electrical activity in the brain

usually from an overactive cluster of neurons

251
Q

what does the excess electricity do during epilepsy

A

spill into areas of the brain

252
Q

what happens when excess electricity spills in to brain

A

impair normal motor function
can affect motor and sensory functions
causes skeletal muscles to contract and false senses

253
Q

severity of seizures

A

can vary

254
Q

petit mal seizures

A

also called absence seizures

255
Q

severity of petit mal seizures

A

less or lower in severity

256
Q

characteristics of petit mal seizures

A

blank facial expressions and facial muscle twitches

257
Q

who does petit map seizures affect

A

common in children up to 10 years of age

258
Q

grand mal seizures

A

tonic clonic seizures

259
Q

severity of grand mal seizures

A

more severe than other one

260
Q

characteristics of grand mal seizures

A

false sensory information and convolutions

uncontrolled muscle contractions as signals reach the primary motor cortex

261
Q

what precedes grand mal seizures

A

an aura, a flash of light

262
Q

premotor cortex location

A

in frontal lobe

sits anterior to primary motorcortex

263
Q

what does the premotor cortex control

A

learned motor skills that are pattered

- cycling, walking, chewing, typing

264
Q

where does the premotor cortex send patterns to

A

the primary cortex

265
Q

what happens when the premotor cortex is damaged

A

loss in patterned skills

can be relearned

266
Q

Broca’s area location

A

in the frontal lobe

267
Q

what are the broca area’s function

A

for muscles used for speech

usually active when we plan to speak

268
Q

where is the broca area found

A

only in left hemisphere of the brain

269
Q

frontal eye field location

A

in the frontal lobe

270
Q

what does the frontal eye field control

A

voluntary movement of the eyes

271
Q

sensory areas

A

involved with conscious perception of stimuli

272
Q

primary somatosensory cortex location

A

in the parietal lobe

just posterior to the central sulcus

273
Q

what does the primary somatosensory cortex do

A

spatial discrimination of somatosensory input

Locates the part of the body that is being touched.

274
Q

what uses the primary somatosensory cortex the most

A

areas of the body that are more sensitive to touch
hands feet face tongue lips genitals
uses more neurons
appear larger on map and form a homunculus

275
Q

somato

A

means touch

276
Q

somatosensory association cortex location

A

parietal lobe behind primary somatosensory cortex

277
Q

what does somatosensory association cortex do

A

integrates information coming into the brain in an attempt to understand an object that is being felt

278
Q

somatosensory association cortex continued

A

allows for ID based on touch
texture size and shape
ID using prior experience

279
Q

primary visual cortex location

A

located at the posterior tip of the occipital lobe

280
Q

primary visual cortex

A

largest of all cortical sensory areas
vision uses the most brain power - color - depth perception
processes info from eyes to produce vision

281
Q

visual association area location

A

also in occipital lobe

282
Q

Auditory association area

A

allows us to identify current sounds
compares current sounds to known sound and using memories
Also in temporal lobe

283
Q

gustatory cortex

A

association area identifies taste perceives taste, located in insula

284
Q

olfactory cortex

A

perceives smell
located in temporal lobe
association area identifies smell

285
Q

vestibular cortex

A

gives a sense of balance

located in insula

286
Q

visceral cortex

A

located in insula

for crude sense of organ pain

287
Q

Primary auditory cortex

A

Receives information from ears to produce sound

288
Q

Primary auditory cortex location

A

In the superior margin of the temporal lobe

Just beneath lateral sulcus

A&P 1 (5 decks)

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