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A&P 1 > A&P Exam 3 > Flashcards

A&P Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

where does what are joint

A

site where two or more bones meet

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2
Q

what do joints provide

A

mobility and helps hold the skeleton together

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3
Q

another name for joint

A

articulations

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4
Q

how many ways can you classify joints

A

two ways

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5
Q

functional classification

A

based on the amount of movement allowed

  • synarthrosis
  • ampiarthrosis
  • diathrosis
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6
Q

synarthrosis

A

a functional movement classification of joints

it is NO movement allowed

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7
Q

ampiarthrosis

A

a functional movement classification of joints

only SLIGHTLY moveable joint

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8
Q

diarthrosis

A

a functional movement classification of bone

freely moveable

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9
Q

structural classification

A

organization of joints based on materials it’s made of or it’s missing

  • fibrous joints
  • cartilaginous joints
  • synovial joints
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10
Q

fibrous joints

A

joints are joined by protein fibers, most are synarthrosis

  • no joint cavity
  • like collagen
  • no cartilage
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11
Q

sutures

A

seams that occur only between bones of the skull

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12
Q

what are bones joined by in sutures

A

by short protein fibers

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13
Q

what happens to sutures in adulthood

A

sutures ossify and become bone

-synostoses

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14
Q

syndesmoses

A

bones are connected by a ligament

  • straplike dense irregular connective tissue
  • longer protein fibers
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15
Q

what do ligaments do

A

connect one bone to another bone

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16
Q

what do tendons do

A

connect a muscle to a bone

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17
Q

gomphoses

A

joint where one bone is embedded in another bone and also connected by a ligament

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18
Q

example of gomphoses

A

only example is teeth at the alveolar margins of the mandible and maxilla

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19
Q

cartilaginous joints

A

bomes are joined using cartilage (no joint cavity)

most are immovable or slightly movable (synarthrotic or ampiarthrotic)

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20
Q

synchondroses

A

joints contain a thin plate of hyaline cartilage

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21
Q

symphyses

A

joint uses a thin layer of hyaline cartilage on bone ends and a pad of fibrocartilage in between

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22
Q

what is the fibrocartilage pad like

A

strong and acts as a shock absorber

joints allow for minor movement

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23
Q

synovial joints

A

bones are joined using cartilage and a joint cavity

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24
Q

which joints are synovial joints

A

almost all limb joints

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25
Q

what kind of movement do synovial joints allow

A

diarthrodial (a lot or free movement)

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26
Q

what is the structure of a synovial joint

A

it has a 5 distinguishable features

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27
Q

articular cartilage

A

1 (most important synovial joint feature )

made of hyaline cartilage
covers bone ends contained in the joint
acts as a spongy cushion that protects underlying bone
ground substance of cartilage contains keratin sulfate and chondroitin sulfate

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28
Q

articular capsule

A

2 synovial joint feature

a dense irregular connective tissue (sac like)
-> surrounds joint space
-> composed of two layers

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29
Q

what are the two lays of the articular capsule

A

outer most layer is the fibrosis capsule

inner layer is the synovium

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30
Q

fibrosis capsule

A

outer layer of articular capsule for protection

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31
Q

synovium

A

AKA synovial membrane

contains cells called synoviocytes

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32
Q

synoviocytes

A

produce synovial fluid

can affect health of the joint

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33
Q

synovial cavity

A

3 feature of synovial joint

space between two articulating bones
surrounded by the articular capsule

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34
Q

synovial fluid

A

4 feature of synovial joint

occupies the free space in the joint cavity
viscous (yellow) fluid
fluid acts as a shock absorber
reduces friction between opposing bone surfaces
filtrate of blood plasma
contains hylauronic acid and lubricin

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35
Q

reinforcing ligaments

A 
#5 feature of synovial joints
stabilize the joint (maintains normal range of movements)
ligaments do not pass through the joint space
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36
Q

fatty pads

A

cushioning pad along the articular capsule

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37
Q

where can fatty pads be found

A

at knee and hip

heavy use joints

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38
Q

bursae

A

a flattened fibrous sac (lined with synovium and filled w/ synovial fluid)

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39
Q

where can you find bursae

A

near joints that have a lot of structures

- tendonds, ligaments - bony projections -

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40
Q

what is bursar for

A

to reduce friction during body movements

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41
Q

what are long bursar called

A

tendon sheath

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42
Q

examples of bursae

A

elbows and shoulder, knee and hip

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43
Q

articular discs

A

aka menisci
discs of fibrocartilage - strong resistant to mechanical stress
discs increase the tightness of fit of a joint

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44
Q

examples of articular discs

A

knee shoulder hip and jaw

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45
Q

joint stability

A

joints are constantly stretched and must be stabilized so that articulating bones do not come out of alignment

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46
Q

several factors that contribute to joint stability

A 
ligaments
associated tendons (held tight by muscle tone)
complementary shapes of articular surfaces (bones at a joint are shaped to fit each other)
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47
Q

sprain

A

ligaments reinforcing a joint are stretched or torn

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48
Q

ligaments

A

do not stretch well and will snap under too much strain

heal very slowly due to being poorly vascularized

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49
Q

completely ruptured ligament

A

may need to be replaced

- ulnar collateral ligament replacement - tommy john surgery -

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50
Q

dislocation

A

articulating bones at a joint are forced out of alignment
often needs to be realigned or reduced
often accompanied by sprain
repeated dislocations of the same joint is possible

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51
Q

what are dislocations common for

A

fingers shoulder and jaw

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52
Q

cartilage ingury

A

soft tissue that can be torn
most involve knee
lose fragments can be removed
damaged fragments can be repaired

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53
Q

how long is a cartilage injury recovery

A

quick

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54
Q

bursitis

A

inflammation of bursa

causes fluid to accumulate (joint appears swollen)

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55
Q

what is bursitis caused by

A

repetitive use

forceful blows to the joint

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56
Q

tendonitis

A

inflammation of the tendon sheath

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57
Q

where is tendonitis / bursitis often seen

A

elbow - shoulder - and knee

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58
Q

what are treatments for tendonitis / bursitis

A

rest - ice - and anti inflammatories

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59
Q

arthritis

A

describes a variety of conditions

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60
Q

what do all forms of arthritis cause

A

to some degree they cause pain, stiffness and swelling of the joints

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61
Q

what do all forms of arthritis have as a long term issue

A

long term inflammatory component

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62
Q

what does inflammation cause to the joint

A

causes more damage

the more inflammation the faster the damage

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63
Q

what causes cartilage homeostasis

A

release of pro-inflammatory hormones and the presence of immune cells on the joins

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64
Q

what is the issue when cartilage homeostasis is disrupted

A

chondrocytes secrete less extracellular material and more MMP’s

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65
Q

what are MMP’s

A

short for matrix metalloproteinases

which are enzymes that degrade connective tissue

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66
Q

what causes permanent cartilage loss

A

decreased production and increased breakdown of of extracellular matrix lead to

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67
Q

osteoarthritis

A

most common type of arthritis

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68
Q

what is osteoarthritis due to

A

regeneration of joints due to chronic use

breakdown over time

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69
Q

osteoarthritis severity

A

increases with age but it is a slow progression

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70
Q

is the damage done by osteoarthritis reversible

A

no

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71
Q

what is osteoarthritis commonly associated with

A

crepitus

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72
Q

what is crepitus

A

noisy creaky joints

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73
Q

what are the commonly affected joints in osteoarthritis

A

knee hip and fingers

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74
Q

rheumatoid arthritis

A 
can be found in kids 
it is an inflammatory based arthritis 
autoimmune disease 
unknown etiology 
joints can be warm to the touch
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75
Q

what is rheumatoid arthritis linked to

A

bad genes

body has trouble limiting inflammation

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76
Q

what is R.A. characterized by

A

flare ups and remissions

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77
Q

what joints does R.A. affect

A

often pair of joints like elbows or shoulders
synovium becomes overgrown forms a pannus
invades joint cavity and destroys cartilage
it can get anklosis which is complete destruction of the joint s and fusion of the bones

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78
Q

gouty arthritis

A

nitrogen processing disorder

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79
Q

what does the body accumulate during gouty arthritis

A

uric acid
uric acid crystals form in the body
crystals ember in the joint capsule and initiate an inflammatory response

80
Q

what joints does Gouty arthritis affect

A

the joints on big toe

81
Q

synovial joint movements

A

body movements occur when muscles contract across a joint

82
Q

contraction of a skeletal muscle group

A

moves bones with respect to one another

83
Q

in bone movement which is the origin

A

the less movable bone

84
Q

in bone movement which is the isertion

A

the bone that moves more

85
Q

gliding movements

A

a flat bone slides over the surface of another flat bone

simplest type of movement allowed

86
Q

flexion
vs
extension

A

decrease the angle of the joint (draw closer together)
vs
increase the angle of the joint (move further apart)

87
Q

hyperextension

A

joint moves beyond 180 degrees

88
Q

adduction
vs
abduction

A

movement of a limb towards the body line
vs
movement of the limb away from the body midline

89
Q

circumduction

A

movement of a limb to form a cone in space

90
Q

which joints perform circumduction movements

A

coxal joint
glemohumeral joint
metacarpaophalangeal joint

91
Q

rotation

A

turning of a bone on its own axis
can rotate at hip and shoulder
medial or lateral rotation

92
Q

suppination
vs
fronation

A

palms face forward (forearm bones run parallel)
vs
palms face rear (forearm bones form an x)

93
Q

inversion
vs
eversion

A

point foot inward
vs
point foot outward

94
Q

protraction
vs
retraction

A

anterior movement of a body structure in a horizontal plane
vs
posterior movement of a body structure in a horizontal plane
(moving mandible back and forth)

95
Q

elevation
vs
depression

A

superior movement of a body structure in a vertical plane
vs
inferior movement of a body structure in a vertical plane
(moving mandible or scapulae up and down)

96
Q

opposition

A

movement of thumbs to the tips of the other fingers

- at the first carpal metacarpal joint

97
Q

Fibrocartilage pad

A

Strong and persistent to mechanical stress

98
Q

What are articular discs for

A

Reduces joint wear

99
Q

smooth muscle structure

A

most cells are oval shape
cells are uninucleated
tissue is not striated

100
Q

where can smooth muscle be found

A

always in walls of hallow organs

  • stomach
  • salivary glands
  • uterus
101
Q

function of smooth muscle

A

not under voluntary control

102
Q

how is smooth muscle used

A

always for slow sustained contractions

103
Q

characteristics of slow sustained contractions

A

not very powerful
does not fatigue
100x more energy efficient than skeletal muscle
AND subconscious nervous system

104
Q

smooth muscle arrangement

A

single unit smooth muscle (connected with gap junctions)
cells act together
two overlapping sheets (inner and outer layer)

105
Q

inner layer

A

aka circular layer

106
Q

outer layer

A

aka longitudinal

107
Q

cardiac muscle structure

A 
cells are shorter rectangles 
can ben ranched 
can be binucleate (or multinucleate) 
tissue is striated, highly organized and powerful 
connected by gap junctions
108
Q

where is cardiac muscle found

A

only in heart

109
Q

gap junctions in cardiac muscle

A

contained in intercalated disc

110
Q

cardiac muscle function

A

involuntary

contracts and responds to pacemaker cells

111
Q

skeletal muscle structure

A

long rectangles skeletal muscle fibers
multinucleate
tissue is striated
attached to bone

112
Q

skeletal muscle function

A

under voluntary control
only contract in response to a motor neuron
very powerful but fatigue rather quickly

113
Q

fascicle

A

a membrane band group of muscle cells

each skeletal muscle is made of many

114
Q

connective tissue sheaths

A

each whole muscle has several layers of this

115
Q

endomysium

A

sheath that surrounds a single muscle cell

116
Q

peromysium

A

sheath that surrounds a fascicle

117
Q

epimysium

A

sheath that surrounds an entire muscle

118
Q

muscle attachments

A

tendon (strap-like dense regular)
aponeurosis (sheet-like dense irregular)
both anchor muscle to another muscle or bone

119
Q

sacrolemma

A

plasma membrane of a muscle cell

120
Q

sacroplasm

A

cytoplasm of a muscle cell

121
Q

sacroplasm stores …

A 
large numbers of glycosomes (stores ATP) 
contains myaglobin (oxygen storing nutrient)
122
Q

myofibrils

A

rods of cytoskeleton -> proteins
contractile element of the muscle cell (cell structures that shorten)’parallel to the long axis of a muscle cells
many myofibrils in each muscle cell

123
Q

sacroplasmic reticulum

A

modified smooth E.R.
large and branched
hold and releases calcium on demand

124
Q

t tubules

A

deep invagination in the sacrolemma

125
Q

what is the space within the t tubules

A

continuous with extracellular space (interstitial fluid)

126
Q

myofibrils dan be divided into small regions called?

A

sacromeres

127
Q

sacromere

A

composed of several distinct parts

128
Q

a band

A

dark band in sacromere

129
Q

I band

A

light band in sacromere

130
Q

M line

A

at center of A band

131
Q

Z disc

A

structure at center of the I band

132
Q

H zone

A

lighter zone at center of a band

133
Q

what is a sacromere composed of

A 
a central A Band 
half an I band on each side
M line is at center of a sacromere 
Z disc at each lateral edge
smallest contractile unit of a muscle cell
134
Q

myofilaments

A

small proteins located within each myofibril

135
Q

thick fillaments

A

composed of myosin

extend across the A head

136
Q

myosin

A

protein that has prominent heads

137
Q

thin filaments

A

composed of the protein actin

extends across I band and overlaps into A band

138
Q

elastic filaments

A

composed of titian
located in Z disc
prevent muscle from over stretching

139
Q

regulatory proteins

A

found as part of the thin filament (part of I band)

are troponin and tropomyosin

140
Q

skeletal muscle cell stimulation

A

a motor neuron must stimulate a skeletal muscle cell for the muscle to contract

141
Q

neuromuscular junction

A

where a motor neuron approaches a skeletal muscle cell

142
Q

steps 1 in neuromuscular junction

A
  • a wave of electrical current called an action potential arrives at the terminus of the motor neuron
143
Q

step 2 in neuromuscular junction

A
  • the motor neuron releases neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft (acetylcholine)
144
Q

step 3 in neuromuscular junction

A

there are specific receptors for acetylcholine on the skeletal muscle cell

145
Q

step 4 in neuromuscular junction

A

the binding of acetylcholine opens a nonspecific cation channel
cations flow through sodium and potassium

146
Q

step 5 in neuromuscular junction

A

flow of sodium into skeletal muscle changes voltage

147
Q

skeletal muscle cell voltage

A

at rest it is -70mV

as sodium enters, voltage moves towards 0mV

148
Q

step 6 in neuromuscular junction

A

an action potential is generated in the muscle cell

strong spike of current

149
Q

toxemia

A

toxins in the blood likely from bacteria

150
Q

botulism toxin

A

can be eaten in natural foods

it blocks acetylcholine release

151
Q

botulism effects

A

causes paralysis limp or flacid

152
Q

tatnus toxin

A

can get in to small wounds

toxin stimulates acetylcholine receptors

153
Q

tatnus toxin effect

A

muscle groups contract uncontrollably and cause rigid paralysis

154
Q

myasthenia gravis

A

autoimmune disease

155
Q

what happens in myasthenia gravis

A

body produces and immune response against acetylcholine receptors making antibodies against them and they are destroyed

156
Q

what are the effects of myasthenia gravis

A

cause progressive muscle weakness and paralysis

157
Q

coupling

A

the conversion of an electrical impulse into muscle contraction

158
Q

step 1 of coupling

A

an action potential is produced in the skeletal muscle cell (spreads across all of muscle cell and down t-tubules) allows Ca++ channels to open

159
Q

step 2 of coupling

A

Ca++ enters skeletal muscle cell
interacts with SR and opens Ca++ channels
large increase in Sarcoplasmic Ca++

160
Q

step 3 of coupling

A

high levels of Ca++ in the sarcoplasm binds to regulatory proteins

161
Q

regulatory proteins

A

troponin

tropomyosin

162
Q

troponin

A

3 subunits
I = an inhibitory subunit that binds to actin
T = subunit that binds to tropomyosin
C = subunit that binds to Ca++

163
Q

tropomyosin

A

physically prevents myosin and actin from interacting

164
Q

result of calcium

A

Ca++ binds to regulatory proteins, causing them to change shape
- regulatory proteins move out of the way unmasking myosin and actin

165
Q

step 4 of coupling

A

myosin heads binds to actin and the muscle contracts

166
Q

step 5 of coupling

A

the muscle cell stops contracting when sacroplasmic Ca++ levels decrease
transport ca++ out of cell to extracellular space
pump ca++ into the SR
na/ca exchanger allows 3 na to enter while 1 ca leaves

167
Q

cross bridge formation

A

an energized myosin head binds to newly exposed actin

myosin head is bound to ADP

168
Q

power stroke

A

myosin head bends back
pulls actin towards M line
-> ADP is released

169
Q

cross bridge detachment

A

a new ATP binds to the myosin head

myosin head releases actin

170
Q

energizing of myosin head

A

ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP
released energy is transferred to myosin head
(starting position repeats steps over and over)

171
Q

result of contraction

A

sacromere shortens
I bands are pulled towards the M line
H zone disappears
A band does not moved (neighboring A bands are pulled closer together)

172
Q

skeletal muscle subtypes

A

there are multiple subtypes of skeletal muscle cells based on contraction characteristics (2 important factor)

173
Q

what two factors are important in subtypes of skeletal muscle for muscle cells

A

some skeletal muscle cells contract fast or slow

some skeletal muscle cells fatigue quickly while others do not

174
Q

muscle cell metabolism

A

pathways muscle cells can use to produce ATP

175
Q

Creatine phosphate

A

energy storing protein

176
Q

where is creatine phosphate found

A

only in muscle cells

177
Q

what does creatine phosphate do

A

directly transfers a phosphate group to an ADP to produce ATP

178
Q

what do ATP and creatine phosphate stores provide

A

about 15 seconds worth of energy

179
Q

what are the 15 seconds of energy provided by creatine phosphate for

A

gives enough time to start more complicated metabolism and switch to aerobic or anaerobic

180
Q

aerobic metabolism

A

requires O2

181
Q

where does aerobic metabolism take place

A

process occurs in mitochondria

182
Q

what happens in aerobic metabolism

A

glucose is completely broken down to CO2

183
Q

When does aerobic metabolism dominate

A

during light exercise when blood flow is adequate and O2 is available

184
Q

anaerobic metabolism

A

does not require 02
energy yield is poor
only uses glycolosis (a type of fermentation)
250% faster than aerobic but much less efficient

185
Q

what does anaerobic metabolism do

A

uses glycolisis to partially breakdown glucose to form lactic acid

186
Q

lactic acid

A

an organic compound that causes muscle to burn (in anaerobic metabolism)

187
Q

where does anaerobic metabolism take place

A

process occurs in the cytosol

188
Q

when does anaerobic metabolism dominate

A

during periods of strenuous exercise
blood flow to muscles is inadequate
O2 is not available

189
Q

skeletal muscle cell types

A

differentiating between skeletal muscle cell populations

190
Q

slow oxidative fibers

A

use aerobic metabolism
small cell diameter (each cell is weaker)
slow to respond to stimulus
muscle cells are not easily fatigued (endurance exercise)
red oxygen0fed muscle fibers (blood fed)

191
Q

fast glycolytic fibers

A

anaerobic metabolism
large cell diameter (each cell is stronger)
quick to respond to stimulus
easily fatigued muscle cells (for short powerful movement)
white glycogen-fed muscle fibers (not blood fed)

192
Q

muscle fatifue

A

muscle cells are unable to contract even with proper stimulus due to lack of energy (no ATP)

193
Q

What can muscle fatigue cause

A

contractions and cramps

194
Q

rigor mortis

A

skeletal muscles become stiff and stuck in place after death
reason 1 for rigor mortis

195
Q

skeletal muscle cells decay and leak Ca++
allows for muscle cell contractions
reason 2 for rigor mortis

A

with out being able to replenish ATP muscle cells lock in place because there is no cross bridge detachment

A&P 1 (5 decks)

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