A&P Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
tissues
A
a tissue is a group of cells that are similar in structure and perform a common or related function
2
Q
how many types of tissues are there
A
there are 4 primary types of tissues
3
Q
what are the 4 primary type of tissues
A
epithelial tissue
connective tissue
muscle tissue
nervous tissue
4
Q
what is epithelial tissue
A
covering tissues
5
Q
what is connective tissue
A
for support (variety)
6
Q
what is muscle tissue
A
for movement
7
Q
what is nervous tissue
A
for control
8
Q
epithelial tissue
A
an epithelium is a sheet of cells that covers the body surface or lines a body cavity
9
Q
what are the characteristics of epithelia
A
high capacity for repair and regeneration
is a vascular - no blood vessels in it
is innervated - served by neurons
dense cell packing - tissue contains many cells little room left for extracellular matrix
cells are joined by tight junctions and desmosomes
cells are usually polar in shape
10
Q
classification of epithelia
A
each epithelium is given two names based on the number f cell layers and the shape of its cells
11
Q
what are the two names epithelia is classified by
A
number of layers
and
cell shape
12
Q
simple epithelia
A
one cell thick
13
Q
stratified epithelia
A
two or more cell layers
14
Q
cell shape
A
shape of nucleus is similar to cell shape
15
Q
squamus
A
flat
16
Q
cubadal
A
boxlike
17
Q
collumnar
A
tall
18
Q
stratified squamus
A
stratified tissues composed of different shapes but the name is based on superficial layer
19
Q
how many types of epithelia are there
A
3
general types
pseudo stratified epithelium
transitional epithelium
20
Q
6 general types of epithelia
A
simple squamus simple cubodial simple columnar stratified squamus stratified cuboidal stratified columnar
21
Q
simple squamus
A
single layer of flattened cells
22
Q
simple cubodial
A
single layer of boxlike cells
23
Q
simple collumnar
A
single layer of tall cells
24
Q
stratified squamus
A
multiple layer (flat cells at least on top layer)
25
stratified cuboidal
multiple layer (top layer at least is box like0
26
stratified collumnar
multiple layers (at least top layer is tall)
27
pseudostratified epithelium
cells originate from a single layer, but are different heights
so it's only one layer but it seems like more than one because of this
(only tallest cells have cilia)
28
transitional epithelium
round cells that can stretch and flatten
cells are present stratified
only found in urinary system
29
glandular epithelia
specialized cells that are not used as part of covering or boundary
30
gland
produces and exports (secreted) a particular compound (different sizes of glands)
31
unicellular gland
one secreting cell found in an epithelial sheet
32
multicellular gland
large descrete structure built with many cells
33
exocrine glands
secrete product on to thee surface of the body
| are more numerous than endocrine glands
34
how many major parts does the exocrine glands have
two secratory unit and duct
35
secratory unit
makes product of interest
36
duct
hallow passageway that carries product to surface
37
examples of exocrine glands
tears - mucus - sweat - oil - bile - saliva
38
unicellular exocrine gland
produce mucus
39
endocrine glands
secrete in to the body and ends up in the blood
| do not have ducts (ductless glands)
40
release of product
two possible choices for release of secretion
continuously release product as it is formed
can accumulate product until gland bursts open
41
merocrine gland
salivary and sweat etc
42
holocrine gland / sebaceous gland
exocrine glands that secrete and oily or wavy matter
43
Where is connective tissue found
fills the spaces in the body between other major tissue types
44
4 major classes of connective tissue
bone
cartilage
blood
connective tissue proper
45
characteristics of connective tissue
all connective tissue share a common origin
most common type of tissue in the body
low cell density
mostly matrix of nonliving extracellular material
46
embryonic tissue - mesenchyme
common origin of all connective tissue
47
structural elements of connective tissue
all tissues are composed of cell and extracellular material
48
extracellular material
is a mix of ground substance and protein fibers
49
osteocytes
cells in bone
50
chondrocytes
cells in cartilage
51
blood
leykocytes (WBC) eythrocytes (RBC)
52
cells in proper - fibrocytes
general cells no special function
| found in scar tissue
53
ground substance
name for the unstructured material that fills the space between cells
54
three major components of ground substance
```
interstitial fluid (water)
adhesion proteins (small sticky proteins)
proteologycans (protein cores with many sugar groups
```
55
fibers
strandlike proteins for structural support
56
elastin fibres
made from elastin thin and stretchy
57
collagen fibres
thick called collagen fibers
| thin called reticular fibers
58
connective tissue proper
can be divided into loose and dense connective tissues
59
loose tissues
mostly composed of ground substance
can hold a variety of cell types
soft packing tissues
60
loose tissues examples
areolar and adipose
61
how many types of loose tissue does the body contain
| and what are they and what for
two
white adipose tissue holds fat for long term storage
brown adipose tissues burn fat to produce body heat
62
cutaneous membrane
skin - forms our outer covering
| only dry membrane in body
63
moccus membranes
| also called mucosae
```
line body cavities that are open tooth outside
-> respiratory tract
-> gastrointestinal tract
-> eurogenital tract
wet membranes covered in mucus
```
64
Dense tissues
Mostly composed of protein fibers
Very mechanically resistant tissues
Mostly made of collagen
64
Dense tissues
Mostly composed of protein fibers
Very mechanically resistant tissues
Mostly made of collage.
65
Dense regular connective tissue
Fibers run parallel
66
Dense regular connective tissue examples
Tendons and ligaments
68
Dense irregular tissue
Fibers run in all directions and form a sac or a sheet
69
how much does the skin weigh
for an average adult it is 10 lbs
70
what are the functions of skin
protects underlying delicate tissues (chemical, physical, and biological barrier)
prevents dehydration
aids in heat loss
part of the process that activates vitamin D
71
what is the structure of the skin
it is composed of two major layers
| epidermis and the dermis
72
epidermis
superficial portion of the skin
| epithelial layer - stratified squamous epithelium
73
dermis
deeper portion of the skin
| connective tissue layer - dense connective tissue
74
hypodermis
it is beneath the skin
not part of the skin
loose connective tissue mostly adipose
75
what is hypodermis connective tissue mostly made of
adipose tissue
76
thin skin
found over most of the body
77
how many layers of thin skin is there
4 epidermal layers
78
thick skin
found on the palms and soles of feet and hairless
79
how many layers of thick skin is there
5 epidermal layers
80
stratum basale
deepest layer of the epidermis
single layer of cells
cells in this layer undergo constant mitosis
producing new skin cells
81
how is new skin produced
older cells are pushed superficially (towards the surface of the skin)
82
stratum spinosum
Layer above the stratum basale Several cell layers thick of the epidermis
keratinocytes are filling intermediate filaments made of keratin -> cells start to look prickly
83
stratum granulosum
4-6 cell layers above the stratum spinosum
| at this layer the morphology of keratinocytes change drastically - cells accumulate granules (helps to form keratin)
84
what forms when keratinocytes granule
keratin
85
what happens when keratinocytes change drastically
organelles disintegrate
cells flatten
plasma membrane thickens
86
what happens to cells at the stratum granulosum layer of skin
cells are avascular and starve to death due to being pushed too far away from dermis
87
stratum lucidum
additional layer found only in thick skin above the stratum granulosum
2-3 rows of cell layers thick
88
stratum corneum
most superficial layer of epidermis
20 to 30 cells thick
scale like remnants of keratinocytes called horny cells
89
what are keratinocytes in stratum corneum called
horny cells
90
What are keratinocytes
Produce keratin
Helps give the epidermis it's protective properties
Tightly connected cells by desmosomes
most common epidermal cell
At the surface of the skin they are dead cells
91
where are keratinocytes produced
at the stratum basal (deepest layer of the skin)
92
how many keratinocytes are lost daily
millions of dead cells are lost daily
93
why are keratinocytes produced
they are produced in heavy wear areas in response to friction
94
What do melanocytes look like
spider shaped cells
95
where are melanocytes found
only in stratum basal
96
what is melanin for
color of skin
| protects keratinocytes in the skin from UV radiation
97
what can UV radiation do
damage DNA
98
where does UV radiation come from
sunlight
99
what does melanin do to protect from UV radiation
absorbs and dissipates the energy so no damage occurs
100
what increases melanin production
constant UV exposure
101
langerhan's cell
Aka dendric cells
immune cells that migrate to the epidermis
engulfs and destroys foreign substances
102
where are langerhan's cells found
mostly in stratum spinosum
103
markel cells
Aka tactile cells
associated with a free nerve ending
Present at the epidermal-dermal junction
104
markel disc
sensory receptor for touch
105
where is a markel disc found
at the junction of epidermis and dermis
106
how many layers is the dermis composed of
two
| Papillary and reticular layers
107
what kind of tissue is the dermis
Strong flexible connective tissue
108
papillary layer
superficial layer of the dermis
| thin layer of areolar connective tissue (loose)
109
what does papillary layer produce
projections called dermal papillae
110
what does dermal papillae do
pushes epidermis upward to form epidermal ridges for palms and soles of feet
111
what are epidermal ridges good for
increase gripping ability
| form fingerprints that are unique to each individual
112
reticular layer
deepest layer of the dermis
| thick layer of dense fibrous connective tissue
113
what does reticular layer contain
accessory structures of skin like hair follicles and glands
114
what reasons can reticular layer be overstretched and or torn
pregnancy
excess body weight
stress pains
115
striae
stretch marks
| light scarring produced from reticular layer
116
Different name for hypodermis
also called the superficial fascia
117
where is the hypodermic located
beneath the skin
118
what type of tissue is hypodermis
loose connective tissue
| adipose tissue
119
what are the functions of the hypodermis
anchors skin
acts as a shock absorber
allows skin to slide
insulates agains heat loss
120
what does hypodermis become with age
thicker and accumulates weight
121
pigments
three pigments contribute to skin color
122
melanin colors
ranges from reddish-yellow to brownish-black
123
who produces more melanin
darker people
124
why do darker people produce more melanin
due to a darker melanin or melanin that lasts longer
125
what are moles or freckles due to
localized accumulation of melanin
126
carotene colors
range from yellow to orange
127
where is carotene found
pigment is found in vegetables (food)
| most obviously found in palms and soles of feet
128
hemoglobin color
red pigment
129
where is hemoglobin found
erythrocytes / red blood cells
130
What is hemoglobin for
is 02 transporter protein
131
how does hemoglobin work
blood flows to the skin and adds pinking color
132
who is hemoglobin more common in
pale individuals
133
skin color disorders
```
reddness
pallow
jaundice
cyanosis
vitiligo
```
134
redness
also known as erythema
| skin is flushed with blood
135
what is erythema due to
anger or embarrassment or inflammation
136
pallor
also known as blanching
| skin is pale due to low blood content
137
when does pallor or blanching occur
during periods of intense emotions like fear or shock
138
jaundice
also known as yellow cast
| due to accumulation of toxic pigment bilirubin
139
when does jaundice occur
when there is a liver dysfunction
140
cyanosis color and reason
bluing
| blood in skin is poorly oxygenated
141
vitiligo
true skin pigmentation disorder
142
what is vitiligo due to
loss of melanocytes
143
what does vitiligo cause
uneven coloration of skin - forms light spots of unpigmented skin
144
eccrine sweat glands
most numerous typed of sweat glands
coiled tubular glands
Aka merocrine glands
145
what product do eccrine sweat glands produce
hypotonic
99% water
evaporates to cool the body
146
eccrine sweat glands are found all over the body except
red margin of lips
areolas (nipples)
hairless part of genitals
147
apocrine sweat glands
larger than eccrine sweat glands
148
what do apocrine sweat glands produce
viscous, milky, yellowish sweat
| metabolized to produce body odor
149
where are apocrine sweat glands found
axillary region and anogenital region
150
when do apocrine sweat glands become active
during puberty
151
what are apocrine sweat glands stimulated by
stress pain or sexual arousal
152
ceruminous glands
modified apocrine glands only found along the external ear canal
153
what do ceruminous glands produce
sticky, yellow, bitter, waxy substance called cerumen
154
what is cerumen
earwax
155
mammary glands
specialized sweat glands in breast tissue
156
what can mammary glands secrete
milk
157
oil glands
also called sebaceous glands
158
what do oil glands produce
sebum
| mix of lipids and dead cell fragments
159
where is sebum released to
hair follicles or onto the skin
160
what does sebum do
softens and lubricates skin and hair
161
Flexure lines
Reticular layer folds instead of slides
161
Flexure lines
Reticular layer folds instead of slides
163
Why does skin fold instead of slide in reticular layer
Due to dermis more firmly attached
164
hair follicles
deep end of hair follicle expands to form hair bulb
165
hair matrix
cells divide to produce new hair
166
hair follicle receptor
a knot sensory nerve endings associated with hair follicles
167
arrector pili
bundles of smooth muscle associated with hair follicles
168
what do arrector pili do
pull on hair follicle to make hair stand up when fearful or cold
produces goosebumps in skin
169
burns
tissue damage and cell death caused by intense heat, electricity, radiation, chemicals, or cold
170
initial short term danger in burns
fluid and electrolyte loss
171
long term danger in burns or prolonged
immune suppression and infections
172
rule of nines
system estimates body damage from burn
173
rule of nines numbers
```
head and neck 9%
each arm 9% x 2 = 18%
each leg is 18% x 2 = 36%
body trunk is 36%
perineum 1%
all totals to 100%
```
174
first degree burn
only epidermis is damaged
175
second degree burn
epidermis and upper (superior) portion of dermis is damaged
176
what can second degree burns cause
epidermis and dermis separation
| can form a fluid filled pocket called blisters
177
third degree burn
all epidermis and dermis is damaged
178
what is a third degree burn called
whole thickness
179
why are third degree burn areas pain free
neurons are all dead in area
180
skin cancer
overexposure to UV radiation (sunlight) damages DNA of skin cells
181
UV radiation mutations
is damage to DNA
182
P53
can inactivate tumor suppressor gene
183
sunburn skin
produces protein Fas
| causes damaged cells to eliminate themselves and potentially cancerous cells
184
basal cell carcinoma
cells of stratum basal proliferate
| begin to move down to the dermis and hypodermis
185
what is the most common type of skin cancer
basal cell carcinoma
186
what is the least malignant type of cancer
basal cell carcinoma
187
squamous cell carcinoma
grows rapidly and can metastasize if not removed
| spread to other part of body
188
melanoma
melanocytes proliferate
- produce dark irregular spots
- can arise from moles
- metastasize very easily
189
ABCD rules for identifying melanoma
A - asymetry
B - borer irregularity
C - color variability
D - diameter
189
What is the only pigment produced in the skin
Melanin
190
What is the hair follicle receptor wrapped around
Hair bulb
191
What are hair follicle receptors for
To feel when hairs are being bent
192
What does Fas do
Eliminates cells on purpose
193
Why does skin peel in sheets
To get rid of all the damaged cells that may be cancerous
194
Where is squamous cell carcinoma found
In the stratum squanosum
195
What is Function of bones
Protect body tissues
Supports body weight - allows us to stand up
Allows body movements - with skeletal muscles
Stores Ca 2+
196
What is the human skeleton composed of.
Bone and cartilage
197
Long bone
A shaft with knobby ends
| Like cartoon or dog bones
198
What kind of bone are limbs
Long bones
199
Long bones example
Radius, tibia, ulna
200
Short bones
Roughly cubed shaped
202
Where are short bones found
Carpals and tarsals (wrist and ankles )
203
sesmoid bones
short bone that forms in a tendon (example is patella)
204
flat bones
flat, thin, and usually curved
205
examples of flat bones
parietal temporal and occipital bones
| bones in the cranium, ribs, sternum
206
irregular bones
vary in shape and size
207
example of irregular bones
vertebrae and coxals
208
structure of bone
there are several osseous tissues
209
what are the two different bone textures
compact bone and spongy bone
210
compact bone
structure unit is the osteon composed of central canal surrounded by hallow tubes of collagen
211
what does osteon do
carries blood vessels and nerves
212
bone cells
osteocytes
| occupy open spaces in bone called lacunae
213
what are osteocytes trapped in
lacunae
214
canalicoli
tentacle like projections gap junctions in which bone cells connect to each other
215
why do bone cells connect to each other through canalicoli
to communicate and share nutrients
216
spongy bones
not composed of osteons
217
traburculae
cell fragments loosely organized in spongy bone and contains osteocytes
218
what are the open spaces between trabecular filled with
bone marrow
219
tissue arrangements
every bone has compact bone on surface and spongy bone on inside
220
what is the tissue arrangement of short bones
a plate of spongy bone surrounded by compact bone called diploe
221
chemical composition of bone
extracellular matrix of bone is a combination of organic and inorganic material
222
osteoid
produced by osteoblasts
organic component of bone matrix
composed of ground substance and protein fibers
223
hydroxyapitites
inorganic compound (unique to bone)
mineral salts like calcium phosphate
deposited around osteoid
makes bone hard (very resistant to mechanical forces)
224
diaphysis
tubular shaft that forms axis of long bone
thick collar of compact bone
hallow at center
225
madulary cavity
hallow center of long bone that holds bone marrow
226
epiphysis
two 1 proximal and 1 distal
knobby bone ends
positron contained in a join is covered with a hyaline cartilage
227
epiphyseal line
aka metaphysis
228
where is the epiphyseal line at
at meeting of diaphysis and epiphysis
| remnants of the epiphyseal plate where growth used to occur
229
periosteum
white double layer that surrounds external bone surfaces
contains holes called nutrient foramen
anchored by perforating fibers
230
outer layer of periosteum
dense irregular connective tissue -> protective sac
231
inner layer of periosteum
osteogenic layer -> modified bone
232
what is a nutrient foramen for
passageway for blood vessels and herre fibers
233
endosteum
a single layered membrane covers internal bone surfaces
| only osteogenic layer
234
how many types of bone marrow are there
two
235
red bone marrow
found in open spaces of spongy bone
deep in epiphysis
contains pluripotent hemotopoietic (adult) stem cells
produces all types of blood cells
236
yellow bone marrow
found in medullary cavity of the diaphysis
237
bone physiology
bone must maintain itself to remain a viable tissue
238
osteogenesis
process of producing new bone
239
intramembranous ossification
develops from a flat connective tissue membrane
240
what does intramembranous ossification produce
some flat bones like clavicles and bones of cranium
241
endochondral ossification
develops from cartilage
responsible for forming all other bones
responsible for long bone growth
242
bone growth in width
new bone is secreted on to the surface of old bone
243
why do bones get wider
to support more weight
| can get wider at any age
244
bone growth in length
at the epiphyseal plate a thin layer of cartilage
245
what does older cartilage of the plate do
calcifies to become bone
246
when does growth in length stop
end of puberty
247
what happens to bone plate at the end of puberty
the plate seals shut cartilage becomes bone
248
what is the new name for sealed plate of cartilage
epiphyseal
249
bone remodeling
over 5% of total bone mass is recycled every week
250
how often is spongy bone replaced
every 3 years
251
how often does compact bone replace itself
about every 10 years
252
what does bone remodeling prevent
it prevents it from becoming old and brittle
253
osteoblasts
produce new bone
secrete osteoid
derived from osteogenic cells
254
osteoclasts
degrade away old bone
large multinucleate cells derived from bone marrow
secrete HCL and proteoses to digest bones
255
osteocytes
mature bone cell
256
where are osteocytes found
in lacunae
257
what do osteocytes do
monitor and maintain bone matrix (example of homeostasis)
258
hormones in bone
bone mineralization is affected by the amount of calcium levels in the blood
259
two hormones for bone
calcitonin and parathyroid hormone
260
calcitonin
released by thyroid gland
| when blood levels are too high
261
what does calcitonin do when blood cels are too high
deposists excess calcium in to bones to make stronger more dense bones
262
pth
released by parathyroid gland when blood calcium levels are too low
263
what does parathyroid hormone do
causes calcium to be removed from bones
| it is weaker less dense bones
264
osteomalacia
inadequate mineralization of bone
265
what is the issue with osteomalacia
lamellae are present but not enough calcium bones are soft and bend due to low dietary calcium and vitamin d
266
riketts
osteomalacia in children
| more severe due to ongoing growth
267
what does rickets lead to
permanent skeletal malformation
268
osteoporosis
several diseases where bone removal is faster than bone deposited
269
bone fractures
despite their strength, bones can break when exposed to exceptional trauma
270
simple fracture
vs
compound fracture
broken bone does not penetrate skin (closed)
vs
bone penetrates skin (open)
271
nondisplaced fracture
vs
displaced fracture
broken bone ends retain proper shape of bone (remain in alignment)
vs
broken bone ends are forced out of alignment (must be reduced and realigned)
272
linear fracture
vs
transverse fracture
breaks along long axis of bone
vs
perpendicular to long axis
273
comminuted fracture
bone is broken in to 3 or more pieces
274
spinal fracture
excessive twisting
275
depressed fracture
piece is pressed inward
276
greenstick fracture
incomplete break of bone
277
compression fracture
bone is crushed
278
skeletal cartilage
a type of loose connective tissue
279
characteristics of cartilage
```
avascular
aneural
low cell content (protein + ground substance)
holds A LOT of water
resisten to mechanical forces
found where flexible material is needed
```
280
hyaline cartilage
most common type of cartilage in body
extra cellular matrix contain thin collagen fibers
firm cartilage
281
hyaline cartilage examples
nasal, respiratory, articular, (found in joints)
282
elastic cartilage
elastin fibers
| more strong and stretch but less firm
283
elastic cartilage examples
external ear
284
fibrocartilage
less firm but stronger than hyaline
very resisted to mechanical forces
thicker collagen fibers
285
fibrocartilage examples
in joints knee, hip, jaw
285
What are periosteums anchored by
Collagen fibers
286
structure of short, irregular and flat bones
they share a simple design
thin plates of spongy bone covered by compact bone
covered by connective tissue membranes
286
What does the osteogenic layer contain
Cells that modify bone
287
diploe
name of spongy bone in flat bones
287
Why does red bone marrow lose function
Due to age
288
What is appositional growth
New bone secreted on to the surface of old bone
289
Why does the epiphyseal plate shut
Cartilage becomes bone
290
What happens after the epiphyseal plate become bone
It becomes the epiphyseal line or metaphysis
291
What causes epiphyseal plate to shut
Sex hormones
292
Primary osteoporosis
Only seen in older women due to menopause
| Osteoblasts begin to lose function
293
Secondary osteoporosis
Any other reason for osteoporosis
