A&P Exam 1 (Chap 1-8) Flashcards
Polymer
a long/large molecule consisting of many similar building blocks/units (ie monomers)
Examples of polymers
- Carbohydrates
- Proteins
- Nucleic acids
Carbohydrates
simple sugars and polymers of sugars
Simplest Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
Function of polysaccharides
energy storage (ie glycogen)
Glycogen storage
stored in liver and muscle cell
Hydrolysis of glycogen
Releases glucose when the demand for energy increases
Lipids
do not form polymers, are hydrophobic & nonpolar
Saturated fatty acids
solid at room temperature
Unsaturated fatty acids
liquid at room temperature
Most biologically important lipids
fats, phospholipids, & steriods
Functions of fats
energy storage (better at energy storage than carbo & protein)
Adipose cells
contains long-term energy reserves
Adipose tissue
cushions vital organs & insulates the body
Proteins
work as enzymes, function in defense, storage, transport, cellular communication, movement, and structural support. (made from the same set of 20 amino acids)
Polypeptides
unbranched polymers built from amino acids
Polypeptides
unbranched polymers built from amino acids
Protein diversity
- Enzymatic proteins
- Defensive proteins
- Storage proteins
- Transport proteins
- Hormonal proteins
- Receptor proteins
- Contracile and motor proteins
- Structural proteins
Enzymatic proteins
Func: selective acceleration of chemical rxn
Ex: Digestive enzymes
Defensive proteins
Func: Protection against disease
Ex: Antibodies inactivate and help destroy viruses and bacteria
Storage proteins
Func: Storage of amino acids
Ex: Ovalbumin
Transport proteins
Func: Transport of substances
Ex: Hemoglobin
Hormonal proteins
Func: Coordination of an organism’s activities
Ex: Insulin
Receptor proteins
Func: Response of cell to chemical stimuli
Ex: Receptors built into the membrane of a nerve cell
Contractile and motor proteins
Func: Movement
Ex: Motor proteins
Structural proteins
Func: Support
Ex: Keratins
Nucleic Acids Functions
Store, Transmit, and Help express hereditary informations
Nucleotides Composition
nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and one or more phosphate group
Somatic cells
all body cells except sex cells
Centrosomes and Centroles
Func: essential for movement of chromosomes during cell division; organization of microtubules in cytoskeleton (needed for cell reproduction)
Cytoskeleton
Func: strength and support; movement of cellular structures and material
Composition: Protein organized in fine filaments or slender tubes
Plasma Membrane
Func: Isolation; protection; sensitivity; support; controls entry and exit of material
Composition: lipid bilayer containing phospholipids, steroids, and carbohydrates
Microvilli
Func: increases surface area to facilitate absorption of extracellular materials( expands surface area to gain more nutrients)
Cilia
Func: acts as a sensor. Motile cilia move materials over cell surfaces
Ex: in airway & lungs to wipe away mucous
Composition: long extensions of the plasma membrane containing microtubules. 2 types: primary and motile
Proteasomes
Func: Breakdown and recycling of damaged or abnormal intracellular proteins (garbage disposal of damaged or broken protein)
Composition: Hollow cylinders of proteolytic enzymes with regulatory proteins at their ends
Ribosomes
Func: Protein synthesis
Composition: RNA+protiens; fixed ribosomes bound to rough endoplasmic reticulum; free ribosomes scattered in cytoplasm
Golgi apparatus
Func: Storage, alteration, and packaging of secretory products and lysosomal enzyme
Mitocondrial
Func: Produce 95% of the ATP required by the cell
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Func: Synthesis of secretory products; intracellular storage and transport; detoxification of drugs or toxin
Composition: Rough ER has ribosomes
Smooth ER does not have ribosomes
Peroxisomes
Func: Catabolism of fats and other organic compounds; neutralization of toxic compounds generated in the process (breaks down toxic compounds)
Lysosomes
Func: Intracellular removal of damaged organelles or pathogens (degrade everything)
Nucleus
Func: Control of metabolism storage and processing of genetic information; control of protein synthesis
Tissue
refers to certain collections of specialized cells and cell products that perform specific functions
4 types of tissue
- Epithelial
- Connective
- Muscle
- Nervous
Epithelial Tissue
- Covers exposed surfaces
- Lines internal passageways and chambers
- Produces glandular secretions
Connective Tissue
- Fills internal spaces
- Provides structural support
- Store energy
Muscle Tissue
- Contracts to produce movement
Nervous Tissue
- Propagates electrical impulses
- Carries information
Composition of Epithelial Tissue
- Epithelia
- Glands
Epithelia
layers of cells covering internal or external structure
Glands
Structures that are attached to or derived from epithelia produce fluid secretions
Functions of epithelial tissue
- Provide physical protection
- Control permeability
- Provide sensation
- Produce specialized secretions
Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue
- Polarity (apical and basal/lateral surfaces)
- Cellularity (cell junctions)
- Attachment (basement membrane)
- Avascularity (avascular)
- Regeneration
Cell junction
- Gap Junction
- Tight Junction
- Desmosome
Gap Junction
- Formed by interlocking transmembrane proteins (connexons) –> narrow passages
- Allow small molecules and ions to pass –> rapid communication
- Coordination contractions in heart muscle and smooth muscle
Tight Junction
- Fusion of the cell membranes
- Prevents the diffusion of fluids/solutes between cells
Desmosome
- Hemidesmosome
- Spot desmosome
Classification of epithelia
Based on shape:
1. Squamous- thin & flat
2. Cubodial- squared shaped
3. Columnar- tall, slender rectangles
Based on layers
1. Simple epithelium- single layer of cells
2. Stratified epithelium- several layers of cells
Simple Squamous Epithelium
Func: Reduces frictions; controls vessel permeability; performs absorption and secretion
Ex: Mesothelia lining pleural, alveoli of lungs
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Func: Provides physical protection against abrasion, pathogens, and chemical attack
Ex: Surface of skin; lining of mouth, throat, esophagus
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Func: Limited protection, secretion, absorption
Ex: Glands; ducts; thyroid gland
Transitional (Stratified Cuboidal) Epithelium
Func: Permits repeated cycles of stretching without damage
Ex: Urinary bladder, renal pelvis, ureters
Simple Columnar Epithelium
Func: Protection, secretion, absorption
Ex: Lining of stomach, intestine, gallbladder, uterine tubes, and collecting ducts of kidney
Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium
Func: Protection, secretion, move mucus with cilia
Ex: Lining of nasal cavity, trachea, & bronchi
Glandular epithelia
- Endocrine glands
- Exocrine glands
Endocrine glands
Release hormones into bloodstream, No ducts
Exocrine glands
Produce exocrine secretions, Discharge secretions through ducts onto epithelial surfaces
Exocrine glands Types
- Unicellular
- Multicellular
Goblet cells
are unicellular glands in epithelia of intestines and respiratory tract, secrete mucin, which mixes with water to form mucus
Multicellular exocrine glands
- Structure of the ducts
- Simple (undivided)
- Compound (divided) - Shape of secretory portion of the gland
- Tubular (tube shaped)
- Alveolar or acinar (sack shaped/blind pockets)
Types of secretions
- Merocrine secretion
- Apocrine secretion
- Holocrine secretion
Merocrine secretion
Released by secretory vesicle (exocytosis)
ex: sweat & salivary glands
Apocrine secretion
Released by shedding cytoplasm
ex: mammary glands
Hoolocrine secretion
Released by cell bursting, Gland cells are replaced by stem cells
Ex: sebaceous glands
Connective Tissue
- a type of tissue with a diverse array of cells and other components
- closely associated with epithelial tissue- connecting it to the rest of the body
- Never exposed to the outside environment
- Highly vascular
- Contain sensory receptors
Categories of Connective
- Connective tissue proper
- Fluid connective tissues
- Supportive connective tissues
Connective tissue proper
Connect and protect
Cells: Fibroblasts, Fibrocytes, Adipocytes, Mesenchymal cells, Melanocytes, Macrophages, Mast cells, Lymphocytes, Microphages
Protein fibers: Collagen fibers, Reticular fibers, Elastic fibers
Ground substance: …
Tissue Membrane
Line or cover body surface, physical barriers
Consist of an epithelium supported by connective tissue
Types of tissue membrane
- Mucous membrane (Mucosa)
- Serous membranes (Serosa)
- Cutaneous membrane
- Synovial membranes
Mucous Membrane
Line passageways including digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts
Func: to reduce friction, to facilitate absorption or secretion
Serous membrane aka Serosa
Line internal cavities of the body that do not open to the outside
- Parietal layer lines inner surface of cavity
- Viseral layer covers the organs
- Serous fluid between the 2 layers reduce friction
Pleura
lines pleural cavities, covers lungs
Pericardium
lines pericardial cavity, cover heart
Peritoneum
lines peritoneal cavity, covers abdominal organs
Cutaneous Membrane
Skin that covers the outer surface of the body; Thick, relatively waterproof, and usually dry
Synovial Membrane
Line synovial joint cavities; synovial fluid produced for lubrication, lack a true epithelium
Muscle Tissue
Func: for contraction
Types of Muscle Tissue
1 .Skeleton muscle
2. Cardiac muscle
3. Smooth muscle
Skeletal muscle
Def: large muscles responsible for body movement
Composition: Striated voluntary muscle, muscle fibers (individual muscle cell is long, slender, having several hundred nuclei)
Characteristics: do not divide, new fibers are produced by divisions of myosatellite cells (a type of stem cell)
Func: Moves or stabilizes the position of the skeleton; guards entrances and exits to the digestive, respiratory, and urinary tracts; gen heat; protects internal organs
Cardiac Muscle
Func: Circulates blood; maintains blood pressure
Composition: Striated involuntary muscle, cells are short, branched, and striated, usually with a single nucleus; cells are interconnected by intercalated discs
Ex: Heart
Smooth Muscle
Func: Moves food, urine, and reproductive tract secretions; controls diameter of respiratory passageways; regulates diameter of blood vessel
Composition: cells are short, spindle-shaped, and nonstriated (involuntary), with a single, central nucleus
Ex: walls of blood vessels and in digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive organ
Nervous Tissue
- Specialized for conducting electrical impulses
- Concentrated in the brain and spinal cord
Types of cells in Nervous Tissue
- Neurons
- Neuroglia (supporting cells)
Neurons
- Cell body: contains the nucleus and nucleolus
- Dendrites: short branches extending from the body, receive incoming signals
- Axon (nerve fiber): long, thin extension of the cell body, carries outgoing electrical signals to their destination
Neuroglia (supporting cells)
- Maintain physical structure of tissues
- Repair tissue framework after injury
- Perform phagocytosis
- Provide nutrients to neurons
- Regulate the composition of the interstitial fluid surrounding neurons
Integumentary system
- Mutliple layers of skin
- Other accessory structures: Hair, Nails, Glands, Blood vessel, Muscles, Nerves
- 4 types of tissues: Epithelium, Connective Tissue, Muscle, Nerves
Skin Functions
Primary: Protection
Additional: Regulation of body temp, Sensory perceptions, Synthesis of vitamin D from cholesterol under sunlight exposure, Emotional expression (Facial Expression)
Layers of Skin
- E[idermal layer
- Dermis layer
- Subcutaneous layer
Epidermis Composition
- Stratified Squamous; Simple Cubodial or Simple Columnar
Epidermis Function
Protection, Skin color, Heat dissipation (by sweat evaporation), Basal/Stem cell for regen
Dermis Composition
- Dense irregular connective tissue, no epithelial tissue
- Fibroblast and Collagen Fibers, Blood Vessels, Nerve endings, Glands, Hair Follicles, Blood sinuses
Dermis Function
Protection, anchor hair/glands, wound healing (fibroblast), sensory papillae detecting heat, pressure, touch, etc
Subcutaneous Composition
- Loose connective tissue: adipose and areolar CT
- Fibroblast, Adipose tissue, Connective fibers, blood vessel
Subcutaneous Function
- Fat storage, cushion to minimize impact injury, insulation from cold, connecting integument to muscle layer and inner organ
- Hydodermis
Epidermal Layer: Cellular Composition
- Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
- 4 major types of cells:
a. Keratinocytes
b. Melanocytes
c. Langerhans cells
d. Merkel cells - Boundary of cuboidal or columnar epithelium (basal cell)
a. simple columnar (thicker skin)
b. simple cuboidal (thinner skin)
Basal Cells
stem cells capable of dividing to replace she skin cells
Keratinocytes
makes 90% of the cells; produce keratin- a tough fibrous protein that provides protection
Melanocytes
produce the pigment melanin that protects against ultraviolet radiation
Langerhans cells
are macrophages that originated in the bone marrow; involved in the immune responses
Merkel cells
function in the sensation of touch along with the other adjacent tactile discs (receptors)
Stratum lucidum
Only present in thick skin
Thick skin
- Hairless
- Palms, Soles, Fingertips
Spinosum
Contains melanocytes and Langerhans cells
Basale
Contains single row of cuboidal or columnar keratinocytes, stem cells, melanocytes, and Merkel cells
Keratinization
the process of transforming the viable cells generated in the stratum basale w/ more of the waxy keratin
Dermis: Collective Tissues
Contains 2 regions:
1. A superficial papillary layer (loose connective tissue)
2. A deeper reticular layer (dense irregular connective tissue)
Collagen Ridges
Lines of cleavage or “tension lines” in the skin indicate the predominant direction of underlying collagen fibers
Fibroblasts
function to produce collage to maintain the dermal layer and are particularly active during injury to repair the dermal layer of skin
Papillary
Superficial portion of dermis; consists of dense irregular connective tissue with thin collagen and fine elastic fibers; contains dermal ridges that house capillaries, Meissner corpuscles and free nerve endings
Reticular
Deeper portion of dermis; consists of dense irregular connective tissue w/ bundles of thick collagen and some coarse elastic fibers. Spaces between fibers contain some adipose cells, hair follicles, nerves, sebaceous glands, and sudoriferous glands
Benefits of Multiple Layers
- Epidermis resists damage and offers protection to underlying tissues
- Dermis provides temperature stability and prevents dehydration, and is capable of healing
- Subcutaneous tissues insulate, store fat, and anchor the skin
Sensory receptors
Superficially: Merkel discs, free endings (detect many stimuli), Meissner corpuscles, and hair follicle receptors
Deep: Pancian corpuscles
Thermoregulation by skin
Dermal blood vessels:
- Constrict to minimize heat loss
- Dilate to sweat
Hair
Compositon: Keratinous filament growing out of the epidermis (made up of mostly dead keratinized cells)
Func: protects the body against the harmful effects of the sun and against heat loss, also helps with touch sensation
Parts of Hair
The shaft, follicle, root (penetrates into the dermis)
Anchoring Hair
Connective Tissue at root plexus within dermal layer
Smooth muscle at root plexus within dermal layer (arrector pili muscle)
Sebaceous Gland
Ducts merge with hair follicle to secrete oil to surface of skin for moisture
Papilla
Nerves associated with touch
Hair root
deepest structure, living cuboidal epithelial cells (origination point). Growth begins here and cells move up to the superficial regions
Types of hair
Languo- fine, nonpigamented, downy hairs that cover the body of the fetus
Vellus hairs- short, fin, pale hairs barely visible to the naked eye
Terminal hairs- long, coarse, heavily pigmented hairs (obvious hair)
Sebum
secreted by sebaceous glands
Func: prevents dehydration of hair and skin; inhibits growth of certain bacteria
Eccrine sweat glands (SKIN)
Most common and cover most of the body
Func: thermoregulation, emotional stress (ie cold sweat)
Apocrine sweat glands (SKIN)
Ex: axilla, groin, bearded facial regions
Func: secretes viscous sweat to decrease friction, occurs when person is aroused, body odor
Ceruminous glands
Ex: Ear canal
Func: produce waxy secretions (earwax), sticky barrier to prevent entry of foreign bodies into ear canal
Nails
- Composed of hard, keratinized DEAD epidermal cells located over the dorsal surfaces of the ends of fingers and toes
- Structures: Free edge, Nail body (plate), Nail root
Skin Disease Resistance
- Physical Barrier: Dense Tissue combined with keratin & hair
- Chemical Barrier: Water, Acids, Oils
- Immunological Barrier: White blood cells
Microbe Protection
- Impermeable Keratin Layer
- Bacterial Flora
- Presence of Langerhans White Blood Cells in skin
- Hair helps brush off pathogens
UV Protection
Melanin secreted from melanocytes to block UV rays
Cold/Heat Protection
- Sweat: Heat Protection
- Adipose Tissue in Subcutaneous and Hair protects against cold
Burn Healing: 1st degree
The “basal stratum” of the epidermis generate NEW keratinized squamous cells for repair (NO SCAR)
Burn Healing: 1st degree
The “basal stratum” of the epidermis generate NEW keratinized squamous cells for repair (NO SCAR)
Anatomy
the study of the internal and external body structures; their physical relationships among other body parts
Physiology
the study of how living organisms perform their vital functions
3 Fundamental concepts of A&P
- the structure-function relationship
- The hierarchy of the human body
- The goal to achieve homeostasis
The hierarchy of the human body
- Chemical Level
- Cellular level
- Tissue level
- Organ Level
- Organ system level
- Organism level
Homeostatic regulation
- Receptor 2. Control Center 3. Effector
Receptor
a sensor that senses the alterations in the environment
Control Center
processes the signal and sends instructions
Effector
a cell/tissue/organ that receives instructions and works to restore homeostasis
Positive feedback
feedback forward to get a process going and operate within the optimal range
Negative feedback
feedback inhibition to get a process going and operate within the optimal range
Examples of Feedback Regulation
HPA axis (Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal) and HPT (Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Target Organ)
Surface anatomy
Exterior features
Regional anatomy
Body areas
Sectional anatomy
cross sections
Systemic anatomy
organ systems
Clinical anatomy
medical specialties
Developmental anatomy
from conception to adulthood, including embryology
Cytology
study of cells
Histology
study of tissue
Signs
objective observations
Symptoms
Subjective observations (ie only the patient can tell you)
Ipsilateral
On the same side of the body as another structure
Contralateral
On the opposite side of the body from another structure
MRI
(magnetic resonance imaging) generates images of internal organs
PET
(positron emission tomography) visualizes and measures changes in metabolic processes
CT
(computed tomography) imaging technique combining x-rays and computer technology to produce images of internal body
Sectional planes
a single view along a 2 dimensional flat surface
Frontal (coronal) plane
anterior and posterior sections
Sagittal plane
left and right sections
Dorsal Cavity
includes the cranial and spinal cavities.
Ventral cavity
thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity
What is a first-degree burn?
involves only the epidermis; It is characterized by mild pain and erythema (redness) but no blisters and skin functions remain intact.
What is a second-degree burn?
destroys the epidermis and part of the dermis; superficial or deep; some skin functions are lost. Redness, blister formation, edema, and pain result.
What is a third-degree burn?
is a full-thickness burn (destroys the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous layer). Most skin functions are lost, and the region is numb because sensory nerve endings have been destroyed.
Burn Healing: Second Degree
Involves FIBROBLASTS within the Dermal Layer (which secrete heavy collagen/scar formation) and epithelial “basal” cells (to restore epithelial tissue in the epidermal layer). Basal Cells are epithelial stem cells.
Burn Healing: Third Degree
ALL “epithelial cells” and “fibroblasts” are gone so that NO healing can occur. Only Skin Grafts will repair.
Which type of burns would cause loss of function and development of scar tissue?
Deep wound burns
What is a deep wound burn?
occurs when an injury extends to the dermis and subcutaneous layer.
Epidermal Wound Healing (5 steps)
1- no clot formation
2- does not extend beyond the epidermal layer so no blood vessels are damaged
3- does not involve inflammation or recruitment of cells from blood vessels
4- basal (stem cells) divide to reform “stratum basale”
5- the basal cells of the “stratum basale” then differentiate to reform upper portion of epidermal layers
Wound Healing: DEEP (4 steps)
1- requires clot formation to minimize bleeding
2- laceration extends beyond the epidermal layer and blood vessels are damaged (capillaries)
3- involve inflammation or recruitment of cells from blood vessels: 1- platelets (clotting), 2-wbcs (fight infection), 3- fibroblast (tissue repair/scar formation)
4- scar formation: collagen secretion into wound from fibroblasts within the dermal layer to fill the vacancy.
What is a scar?
the final product of wound healing. The provisional matrix is replaced by collage which is NOT fragile and will be permanent
What do Fibroblasts do (in relation to wound healing)?
secrete collagen resulting in a permanent Scar
What is a Provisional Matrix?
is the initial and temporary scab to stop the bleeding BUT is too fragile to be permanent
What do Platelets do (in relation to wound healing)?
help create scab
Wound Healing: Transition from Provisional Matrix to Permanent Scar (3 Steps)
First - Provisional matrix (scab) formed (immediately limits bleeding and temporary protection against microorganisms)
Second - Macrophages slowly chew away the provisional matrix so that it can be replaced with more permanent collagen.
Third - As the provisional matrix is being chewed away, fibroblasts are secreting collagen to replace the provisional matrix with a more permanent “scar” that is ridged and better mimics what this skin was like before the injury.
What does the skeletal system include?
the bones of the skeleton and the cartilages, ligaments, and other connective tissues that stabilize or connect the bones.
What are the main functions of the skeletal system? (3x)
providing a framework for body parts (structural support), body posture (upright posture), and allowing for precise movements.
What are the additional functions of the skeletal system? (4x)
protection, storage of minerals and lipids, blood cell production, and leverage.
What are the 4 cavities?
- Vertebral
- Thoracic
- Cranial
- Pelvic
What are the 6 types of bones?
sutural bones, irregular bones, short bones, flat bones, long bones, and sesamoid bones.
What are the 2 types of bone tissue?
compact bone and spongy bone
The medullary cavity and spaces within spongy bone contain what? (2x)
either red bone marrow (for blood cell formation) or yellow bone marrow (for lipid storage).
Sutural Bones Example
Sutures
Irregular Bones Example
Vertebra
Short Bones Example
Carpal
Flat Bones Example
Parietal, Skull
Long Bones Example
Humerus
Sesamoid Bones Example
Patella
Main Bone Structure (3x)
- Epiphysis
- Metaphysis
- Diaphysis
What is Epiphysis?
The expanded area at the end of each bone. 2 in one bone
What is Diaphysis?
An extended tubular shaft,
What is metaphysis?
The narrow zone where diaphysis is connected to each epiphysis
What is Compact bone?
dense bone, solid and dense, with solid matrix filled with organic ground substance and inorganic salts
What is Spongy bone?
characterized by its spongy, porous, honeycomb-like structure
What is bone tissue made up of?
Connective tissue
What does bone tissue contain?
It contains specialized cells and a matrix consisting of extracellular protein fibers and a ground substance.
How many bones are in the appendicular skeleton?
126
How many bones are in the axial skeleton?
80
How many bones are in the skeleton?
206
Superior Structures of the Appendicular Skeleton is divided into: (4x)
- Shoulder
- Upper Arm
- Forearm
- Hand
The pectoral girdles consist of four bones, which are
two S-shaped clavicles (collarbones) and two broad, flat scapulae (shoulder blades).
What is the sternoclavicular joint?
the sternal end of the clavicle
What is the acromioclavicular joint?
the acromial end of the clavicle
The Upper Limb Consists of (Medial to Distal)
- Upper arm (Humerus)
- Forearm (Radius/Ulna)
- Hand
3a. Carpal bones (wrist bones)
3b. Metacarpal bones (hand bones)
3c. Phalanges (fingers)
