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Biology > A&P Better > Flashcards

A&P Better Flashcards

1
Q

The brain and spinal cord are a part of the […]

A

Central Nervous System

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2
Q

What two types of cells compose the nervous system in humans?

A

Neurons and Glial cells

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3
Q

What is the term for the cell body of the neuron?

A

Soma

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4
Q

What are the branched cytoplasmic processes attached to the soma of a neuron which receive signals?

A

Dendrites

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5
Q

What is the region of the axon attached to the soma called?

A

Axon Hillock

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6
Q

What is the singular large process of a neuron responsible for transmitting signals?

A

Axon

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7
Q

What is the region of the axon where neurotransmitters are released or where electrical signals are conducted between cells?

A

Axon Terminal

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8
Q

What are the swells along the axon capable of neurotransmitter release called?

A

Varicosity

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9
Q

What are the lipid sheaths surrounding the axon which enable faster conduction called?

A

Myelin Sheath

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10
Q

What common ion leak channel generates most of the membrane potential?

A

K+ Leak Channels

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11
Q

What ions are present in higher concentrations outside of the cell?

A

Cl-, Ca2+, Na+

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12
Q

What ions are present in higher concentrations inside of the cell?

A

Mg2+, K+

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13
Q

What is the resting membrane potential of Cl- and why?

A

-70 because it’s an anion that is higher outside of the cell

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14
Q

What channels open past threshold?

A

Voltage-gated Na+ Channels

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15
Q

What protein establishes the resting concentrations of ions mainly responsible for depolarization and repolarization?

A

Na+ / K+ Transporter

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16
Q

After the cell reaches a positive membrane potential of 30 mV, repolarization begins. What does this process entail?

A

The inactivation of Voltage-gated Na+ Channel and the opening of Voltage gated K+ Channels

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17
Q

The absolute refractory period ends when what happens in the cell?

A

The inactivation gate of Voltage-gated Na+ channels is reopened

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18
Q

What aspect of repolarization affects only the relative refractory period but not the absolute refractory period?

A

Opening and closure of Voltage-gated K+ channels

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19
Q

Why does an action potential not propagate along the membrane in both directions?

A

If you have point X on a membrane which is depolarized, it will propagate towards the axon terminal, the side of point X closer to the soma will be in its refractory period. If point X started at the axon hillock, then the soma would have blocked it from occuring.

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20
Q

T/F: Action Potentials always occur at the exact same strength

A

True

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21
Q

What are the areas lacking myelin sheaths called, what function do they serve?

A

Nodes of Ranvier; Action Potentials grow weaker as they are conducted, but can fully regenerate strength when they are propagated. Nodes of Ranvier provide a point for them to repropagate.

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22
Q

The jumping of the regeneration of action potential between Nodes of Ranvier is described by what term?

A

Saltatory Conduction

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23
Q

What motor proteins move organelles towards the axon terminal and what type of transport is this?

A

Kinesins ; Anterograde Transport

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24
Q

What motor proteins move organelles towards the soma and what type of transport is this?

A

Dyneins ; Retrograde Transport

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25
Q

What glial cells generate the myelin sheath in the central nervous system?

A

Oligodendrocytes

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26
Q

What glial cells generate the myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system?

A

Schwann cells

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27
Q

What glial cells are responsible for forming the blood brain barrier and providing nutrients for neurons?

A

Astrocytes

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28
Q

What glial cells form tracts along which neurons develop?

A

Radial glia

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29
Q

What type of glial cells are the macrophages of the brain?

A

Microglia

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30
Q

What types of glial cells can act as stem cells?

A

Radial glia and Astrocytes

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31
Q

What type of glial cells forms cerebrospinal fluid?

A

Ependymal cells

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32
Q

What type of synapse involves a gap junction instead of a synaptic cleft?

A

Electrical Synapse

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33
Q

What type of synapses do not allow for variation in strength and are less common?

A

Electrical Synapse

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34
Q

What type of synapses allow for graded potentials and summation?

A

Chemical Synapse

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35
Q

What type of synapses involve neurotransmitter release from action potentials?

A

Chemical Synapse

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36
Q

What type of synapses are more common?

A

Chemical Synapse

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37
Q

Breakdown the release of neurotransmitters in 5 steps

A

1) An action potential reaches the axon terminal
2) Voltage-gated calcium channels open and allow extracellular calcium release into the cell
3) Calcium-Calmodulin complexes activate Synaptotagmins
4) Activated Synaptotagmins allow fusion between V-SNAREs and t-SNAREs
5) Exocytosis of vesicles allows the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft

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38
Q

What type of receptors at chemical synapses results in rapid effects on the postsynaptic cell?

A

Ionotropic Receptors

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39
Q

What type of receptors at chemical synapses results in a more delayed modular response by the postsynaptic cell?

A

Metabotropic Receptors

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40
Q

What type of summation describes the process of IPSPs and EPSPs entering from different dendrites affecting postsynaptic potential?

A

Spatial Summation

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41
Q

What type of summation describes the process of IPSPs and EPSPs entering from the same dendrites in rapid succession affecting postsynaptic potential?

A

Temporal Summation

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42
Q

What type of rapidly-adapting receptors respond very quickly to their stimulus?

A

Phasic

43
Q

What type of slow-adapting receptors respond slowly to the taking-away of their stimulus?

A

Tonic

44
Q

What kind of ion-channel receptors has low levels of myelination, can be activated by ligands?

A

Transient Receptor Potential Proteins

45
Q

What kind of receptors lack capsular endings, have small diameters, and are unmyelinated?

A

Nociceptors and Thermoreceptors

46
Q

What surface-level skin receptors are phasic and detect light touch & vibrations?

A

Meissner’s Corpuscle

47
Q

What surface-level skin receptors are tonic and detect steady pressure and texture?

A

Merkel’s Discs

48
Q

What deeper skin receptors are phasic and detect deep pressure and high-frequency vibration?

A

Pacinian Corpuscles

49
Q

What deeper skin receptors detect skin stretch and are tonic?

A

Ruffini Endings

50
Q

What muscle receptors monitor degree and rate of muscle stretch?

A

Spindle Stretch Receptor

51
Q

What muscle receptor monitors levels of muscle tension?

A

Golgi Tendon Organs

52
Q

What type of neurons travel in descending pathways?

A

Efferent Neurons

53
Q

What type of neurons travel in ascending pathways?

A

Afferent Neurons

54
Q

What type of neurons carry information between afferent and efferent neurons?

A

Interneurons

55
Q

What is the area of response of an afferent neuron called?

A

Receptive Field

56
Q

What process results in the amplification of differences in overlapping receptive fields to determine the main location of the stimulus?

A

Lateral Inhibition

57
Q

What type of neurotransmitters are derived from amino acids?

A

Biogenic Amines

58
Q

What type of neurotransmitters are based on tyrosine?

A

Catecholamines?

59
Q

What type of catecholamine derivative forms directly into Dopamine?

A

L-Dopa

60
Q

What amino acid breaks down catecholamines and serotonin during reuptake?

A

Monoamine Oxidase (MAO)

61
Q

What enzyme converts norepinephrine to epinephrine?

A

PNMT

62
Q

What gland is responsible for secreting epinephrine and norepinephrine?

A

Adrenal Medulla

63
Q

What two hormones are derived from tryptophan?

A

Serotonin and Melatonin

64
Q

What kind of receptors bind serotonin?

A

5-hydroxytryptamine receptors (5-HT)

65
Q

What kind of medication works for mood diseases implicated with dysfunction of serotonin?

A

SSRI

66
Q

What neurotransmitter is derived from histidine?

A

Histamines

67
Q

What glutamate receptors are Na+ channels that have Mg2+ ions that can be removed to allow Ca2+ conductance?

A

NMDA Receptors

68
Q

What glutamate receptors exocytose in response to higher intracellular Ca2+ concentrations?

A

AMDA Receptors

69
Q

What process of prolonged synaptic strength results from NMDA and AMDA receptors?

A

Long Term Potentiation

70
Q

What is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter which utilizes metabotropic receptors that raise K+ permeability and ionotropic receptors that raise Cl- permeability?

A

GABA

71
Q

What amino acid is GABA derived from?

A

Glycine

72
Q

What inhibitory neurotransmitter involves Cl- permeability?

A

Glycine

73
Q

What neurotoxin causes hyperexcitability by inhibiting glycine?

A

Strychnine

74
Q

What is the pathway for Nitric Oxide synthesis?

A

Arginine –> Citrulline –> Nitric Oxide

75
Q

What secondary messenger is utilized in Nitric Oxide synthesis?

A

cGMP

76
Q

Which cholinergic receptor is ionotropic?

A

Nicotinic

77
Q

Which cholinergic receptor is metabotropic?

A

Muscarinic

78
Q

What enzyme breaks down acetylcholine in the neuromuscular junction?

A

Acetylcholinesterase

79
Q

What poison molecule binds with high affinity to nicotinic receptor but does not activate it?

A

Curare

80
Q

What drug molecule binds with high affinity to muscarinic receptors but does not activate it?

A

Atropine

81
Q

What bacteria interferes with SNARE complexes in the motor neurons?

A

Clostridium Botulinum

82
Q

What bacteria interferes with SNARE complexes in inhibitory neurons?

A

Clostridium Tetani

83
Q

What chemical binds to the hydroxyl group of serine in acetylcholinesterase to cause its breakdown?

A

Sarin

84
Q

What kind of paralysis results from Tetanus?

A

Spastic Paralysis

85
Q

What kind of paralysis results from Botulism?

A

Flaccid Paralysis

86
Q

What kind of paralysis results from Sarin gas?

A

Spastic Paralysis

87
Q

What receptor is present on the presynaptic neuron?

A

Nicotinic

88
Q

What receptor is present on the postsynaptic neuron in the parasympathetic nervous sytem?

A

Muscarinic

89
Q

What receptor is present on the postsynaptic neuron in the sympathetic nervous system?

A

Adrenergic

90
Q

What gaseous neurotransmitter is released from the hypothalamus in small doses

A

Carbon Monoxide

91
Q

What neurotransmitter and neuromodulating peptide induces pain?

A

Substance P

92
Q

What 16-31 amino acid peptides are potent endogenous opioids produced in the pituitary gland and hypothalamus?

A

Endorphins

93
Q

What 5-amino acid peptides are released in the central nervous system and are local endogenous opioids?

A

Enkephalins

94
Q

What neurotransmitter regulates the sleep-wake cycle?

A

Hypocretins / Orexins

95
Q

What disease involves randomly falling asleep due to a deficiency in orexins?

A

Narcolepsy

96
Q

What purine neurotransmitter is excitatory, involved in nociception, and rapid-acting?

A

ATP

97
Q

What purine neurotransmitter is inhibitory, accumulates during wakefulness, and more modulatory (slower-acting)?

A

Adenosine

98
Q

What lipid neurotransmitters utilize retrograde neurotransmission?

A

THC and Endocannabinoids

99
Q

What are the layers of connective tissue surrounding the brain called?

A

Meninges

100
Q

Arrange the three meninges from outermost to innermost

A

Dura Mater, Arachnoid Mater, Pia Mater

101
Q

What group of ependymal cells is responsible for cerebrospinal fluid generaiton?

A

Choroid Plexus

102
Q

Indicate all of the following that can cross the blood brain barrier and how
A) Blood cells
B) Proteins
C) Glucose
D) Steroids

A

B) (rare but can be actively transported)
C) (transported across)
D) (diffuse through)

103
Q

Describe the relative ion concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid

A

K+ is lower, Na+ is higher

104
Q
A

Biology (6 decks)

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