A&P 101 Sem. 2 Final Flashcards
causes of conduction deafness
malformation of outer ear, fluid in middle ear, buildup of earwax
causes of motion sickness
stimulation of semicircular canals during motion
Characteristics of light and vision
pupil dilates with less light, constricts with more, rods help with night/low light vision, cones with color distinction
Characteristics of articular cartilage
hyaline cartilage that covers the ends of long bones, protects, prevents friction
elastic cartilage
similar to hyaline, found in external ear and epiglottis
fibrocartilage
highly compressed with great tensile strength
contains collagen fibers
found in menisci of the knee and in intervertebral discs
homeostatic imbalance
illness
hyaline cartilage
support, flexibility, resilience most abundant of skeletal cartilages articular- covers ends of long bones costal- connects the ribs to the sternum respiratory- makes up larynx, reinforces air passages nasal- supports the nose
characteristics of odorants
bind to transmembrane odorant receptors of olfactory hair membranes, binds G proteins
characteristics of various muscle cells
r
action potential
electrical impulses carried along the length of axons, always the same regardless of stimulus
the underlying functional
afferent nerves
sensory nerves
conjunctiva
thin, transparent mucous membrane
desmosomes
junction between cells..???????????
disaccharide
common table sugar
efferent nerves
motor nerves
endomysium
surrounds a group of muscle fibers
epimysium
covers an entire muscle
excitatory potential
EPSP- excitatory postsynaptic potentials
graded potentials that can initiate an action potential in an axon
use only chemically gated channels
Na+ and K+ flow in opposite directions at the same time
postsynaptic membranes do not generate action potentials
ganglia
group of cell bodies located outside the CNS
gap junction
communication joint between cells
generator potential
because of a graded potential that must be strong enough to stimulate an action potential
graded potential
short response, smaller the farther away from source
mixed nerves
carry autonomic and somatic impulses
four types
somatic afferent and somatic efferent
visceral afferent and visceral efferent
monosaccharide
simplest form of carbohydrates
motor nerves
efferent, cause motion, stimulate muscle ends
nerves
bundle of axons and their sheaths
nuclei (nervous)
Basal Nuclei
masses of gray matter found deep within the cortical white matter
functions(thought to be)
influence muscular activity
regulate attention and cognition
regulate the intensity of slow or stereotyped movements
inhibit antagonistic and unnecessary movement
nucleic acid
DNA- genetic code
RNA- interprets DNA
ATP- energy source
peroxisomes
membraneous sacs that contain oxidases and catalases(enzymes)
carry out metabolic activity
destroy hydrogen peroxide
detoxify harmful or toxic substances
neutralize dangerous free radicals
free radicals- highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons
kidneys, liver
polysaccharide
longest chain of simple sugars in the body
postsynaptic potential
neurotransmitter receptors mediate changes in membrane potential according to
the amount of neurotransmitter released
the amount of time the neurotransmitter is bound to receptors
two types of postsynaptic potentials are
EPSP- excitatory postsynaptic potentials
graded potentials that can initiate an action potential in an axon
use only chemically gated channels
Na+ and K+ flow in opposite directions at the same time
postsynaptic membranes do not generate action potentials
IPSP- inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
Neurotransmitter binding to a receptor at inhibitory synapses
causes he membrane to become more permeable to K+ and Cl- ions
leaves the charge on the inner surface negative
reduces the postsynaptic neuron’s ability to produce an action potential
protein
amino acids joined together makes up 10-30% of cell mass building blocks of everything in the body not getting enough weakens immune system longer acting energy source
sarcolemma
muscle plasma membrane
sucrose
table sugar
blind spot of the eye
small portion of the visual field of each eye that corresponds to the position of the optic disk (also known as the optic nerve head) within the retina.
perimysium
membrane surrounding a vesicle of a muscle fiber
tight junctions
keep things in and out
tracts
Processes
armlike extensions from the soma
called tracts in the CNS and nerves in the PNS
axons and dendrites
triglyceride
blood lipid, derived from glycol and fatty acids
salts
ionic compounds
cranial bones
formed inside fibrous tissue membranes
decomposition reaction
one element separates into 2+
fixator muscle
muscle that acts as a stabilizer of one part of the body during the movement of another
synergist muscle
muscle that works together with another muscle to create movement
agonist muscle
muscle that creates movement, prime mover
antagonist muscle
muscle that opposes the action of another
synthesis reaction
combining of two elements into one
characteristics of a neuron
nerve cells, transmit electric signals
characteristics of plasma membrane
carbohydrates and lipids, allows things to enter and leave cell
collagen fibers
tough and elastic fibers found in cartilage and skin, tensile strength
elastic fibers
stretch
exchange reaction
two or more ions switch places within a reaction
gouty arthritis
deposits of uric acid crystals in joints and soft tissues, followed by an inflammation response
typically effects the the joint at the base of the big toe
in untreated gouty, the bone ends fuse and immobilize the joint
treatment- colchicine, nonsteriodal anti-inflammatory drugs, glucocorticoids
make up of connective tissue
ground substance, fibers, cells
mitosis
copies, 2 identical daughter cells
muscle fibers
skeletal and smooth muscle cells are elongated and are called muscle fibers
myoglobin
unique oxygen binding protein called myoglobin, myoglobin- works as hemoglobin to provide oxygen levels and color
increased when you take steroids
osmosis
diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane
parts of synovial joint
free moving joint, articular cartilage, synovial membrane, synovial fluid, articular capsule
phagocytosis
engulfing of negative material/cells
reticular fibers
network of collagen fibers, framework of lymphatic tissue
reversible reaction
reaction can go either way until equilibrium is reached
spastic paralysis
cut was not all the way through the spinal cord, so some messages get through but not all
comes and goes
make up of sweat
water, minerals, urea
parts of compact bone
osteon = haversian system
parts of neuron
dendrite, axon, soma, myelin sheath/Schwann cell/oligodendrocyte
rule of nines
estimates surface area burned on an adult
steps of tissue repair
blood clots, scabs because of fibrin, vasodilation, swelling, white blood cells clean, clot replaced with connective (granular-scar) tissue, epithelial regenerate
vascularity of lens and cornea
avascular
divisions of ANS
sympathetic and parasympathetic
EX of colloid solutions
particles are permanently suspended, scatters light beams, too large to pass out of capillary membranes
EX of positive feedback vs. negative feedback
negative (stops and returns to homeostasis,) vs. Positive (builds on itself, release of oxytocin, blood coagulation)
EX of suspensions
blood
formation of optic nerve
r
4 major elements of the body
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, 96% of body
function of abducens nerve
VI, motor
fibers leave the inferior pons and enter the orbit via the superior orbital fissure
primarily a motor nerve innervating the lateral rectus muscle
function of accessory nerve
XI, formed from the the cranial root emerging from the medulla and a spinal root arising from the superior region of the spinal cord
spinal root passes upward into the cranium via the foramen magnum
the accessory nerve leaves the cranium via the jugular foramen
motor- stimulates sternocleidomastoid and trapezius
supplies fibers to the larynx, pharynx, and soft palate
function of apocrine glands
armpits and genitalia, activate near to puberty,, no function
function of ceruminous glands
produce ear wax, modified eccrine glands
function of chondrocyte
produce cartilage cells
function of compact bone
withstand pressure/ strength
function of eccrine glands
merocrine glands, simple, coiled, tubular, create sweat, cool body
function of interoceptors
respond to the stimuli arising within the body
found in internal viscera and blood vessels
sensitive to chemical changes, stretch and temperature changes
fnct of irregular bone
contain red marrow and/or sinuses
fnct of limbic system
emotional responses to stimuli
fct of mammary glands
modified apocrine glands, produce milk
fct of microtubules
provide support and structure for the cytoplasm, involved in cell division, transport of intracellular materials, essential components of centrioles, spindle fibers, cilia, and flagella
fnt of mitochondria
powerhouse of the cell, produce ATP
f of myofilaments
form sarcomeres
f of nociceptors
pain receptors
f of osteoblast
bone-forming cells
secrete bone matrix and produce new bone
taking steroids increases the number of these cells
f of osteoclast
large cells that resorb or break down the bone matrix
secrete acid through exocytosis that dissolves bone matrix
causes a release of amino acids, calcium, and phosphates into blood stream
f of photoreceptors
sense the presence of light, rods and cones
f of proprioceptors
proprioceptors and visual signals “inform” the cerebellum of the body’s condition, respond to the degree of stretch of the organs they occupy
found in skeletal muscles, tendons, joints, ligaments, and connective tissue coverings of bones and muscles
constantly “advise” the brain of one’s movements
function of reticular formation(cerebral cortex)
composed of three broad columns along the length of the brainstem
raphe nuclei
medial (large cell) group
lateral (small cell) group
RAS and Motor Function
RAS- Reticular Activating System
sends impulses to the cerebral cortex to keep it conscious and alert
motor function- helps control coarse motor movements
autonomic centers regulate visceral motor functions - vasomotor ,cardiac, respiratory
f of rods in the eye
bipolar photoreceptor cells involved in noncolor vision and vision under conditions of reduced light
f of sarcoplasmic reticulum
elaborate, smooth endoplasmic reticulum that mostly runs longitudinally and surrounds each myofibril
paired terminal cisternae for perpendicular cross channels
functions in the regulation of intracellular calcium levels
elongated tubules called T tubules penetrate into the cells interior at each A band-I band junction
T tubules associate with the paired terminal cisternae to form triads
f of spongy bone
find red marrow here, softer and shock absorbant
f of thalamus
sensual afferent impulses converge and synapse in the thalamus
impulses of similar function are sorted out, edited, and relayed as a group
all inputs ascending to the cerebral cortex pass through the thalamus
mediates sensation, motor activities, cortical arousal, learning, and memory
f of sarcomere
smallest contractile unit of muscle
10,000 per myofibril
highly organized units of actin and myosin
the region of a myofibril between 2 successive Z discs (huge discus shaped proteins)
composed of myofilaments made up of contractile proteins
f of trabecular bone
plates of bone within spongy bone, forms structure that eventually becomes spongy bone through ossification
f of trigeminal nerve
V, Motor and sensory
Three divisions:
opthalmic (V1)
maxillary (V2)
mandibular (V3)
fibers run from the face to the pons via the superior orbital fissure (V1), the foramen rotundum (V2), and the foramen ovale (V3)
motor and sensory of one of the twins (V3) stimulates the muscles of mastication (masseter and temporalis)
the other sensory is cutaneous (skin)
(V1) one twin receives information from scalp, forehead, nose
(V2) other twin is teeth, soft palate, pharynx, tongue, cheeks
f of vestibulocochlear nerve
VIII, Sensory
fibers arise from the hearing and equilibrium apparatus of the inner ear , pass through the internal acoustic meatus, and enter the brainstem at the pons-medulla border
two divisions- cochlear (hearing) and vestibular (balance)
equilibrium and hearing
f of iris
constricts and dilates to control the size of the pupil
f of aqueous humor
maintains intraocular pressure
f of bursae
flattened, fibrous sacs lined with synovial membranes and contains synovial fluid
common where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together
f of cerebellum
cerebellum receives impulses if the intent to initiate voluntary muscle contraction
proprioceptors and visual signals “inform” the cerebellum of the body’s condition
cerebellar cortex calculates the best way to perform a movement
a “blueprint” of corrindated movement is sent to the cerebral motor cortex
coordinated muscles- “best way”
does not integrate movement
problems here causes jerky movements, ataxia, uncoordination
cognitive function
plays a role in language and problem solving
recognizes and predicts sequences of events
f of cochlea
transform the vibrations of cochlear liquids into neural signals
f of cornea
permits light to enter the eye and bend, receives oxygen
f of enkephalins and endorphins
neurotransmitters, stimulate/block certain sensations
f of epiphyseal line
growth plate
most dangerous place to have a fracture
allows bone to grow in length
FORMS AFTER PLATE IS DONE GROWING
f of epiphyseal plate
growth plate
most dangerous place to have a fracture
allows bone to grow in length
f of hypothalamus
blood pressure, rate and force of heartbeat, digestive tract motility, regulates rate and depth of breathing
perception of fear, pleasure, and rage
maintains normal body temperature
regulates feelings of hunger and satiety
regulates sleep and the sleep cycle
endocrine functions of the hypothalamus
releasing hormones control secretion of hormones by the anterior pituitary
the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei produce ADH and oxytocin
ADH (anti-diuretic hormone)-maintains water levels in the body
too much and blood pressure goes up
oxytocin- stimulates the letdown of breast milk, induces labor
f of lacunae
small cavities in the bone that contain osteocytes
f of lens
allows light to bend because of shape
f of ligaments
holds bone to muscle, fibrous tissue (collagen)
f of limbic association area
basic survival functions- memory, reproduction, nutrition, interpreting sensory input and emotions in general
f of medulla
vestibular nuclear complex- synapses that mediate and maintain equilibrium
cardiovascular control center- adjusts the force and the rate of heart contraction, constriction and dilation of the blood vessels
respiratory centers- control rate and depth of breathing
additional centers- regulate vomiting, hiccuping, swallowing, coughing, and sneezing
f of menisci
fibrocartilage disk that reduces friction
f of myofibrils
bundles of actin and myosin that form sarcomeres, multiple sarcomeres lined end to end
f of posterior association area
perception and language
f of prefrontal cortex
anterior portion of the frontal lobe
intellect, cognition, recall, and personality
necessary for judgement, reasoning, persistence, and conscience
closely linked to the limbic system (emotional part of brain)
f of primary somatosensory cortex
parietal lobe (postcentral gyrus)
receives information from the skin and skeletal muscles
exhibits spacial discrimination
way the body positions things in relation to gravity
f of semicircular canals
detect movement in all directions, balance
f of skeletal system
support, protection, levers for movement, mineral storage, blood cell formation
f of somatosensory association cortex
parietal lobe
posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex
integrates sensory information
forms comprehensive understandings of the stimulus
determines size, texture, and relationships of parts
Alzheimer’s loses this association area
f of T tubules
T tubules are continuos with the sarcolemma
conduct impulses in the deepest regions of the muscle
these impulses signal for the release of Ca2+ form adjacent terminal cisternae
T tubules and SR provide tightly linked signals for muscle contractions
double zipper of integral membrane proteins protrude into the intermembranous space
T tubule proteins act as voltage sensors
SR foot proteins are receptors that regulate Ca2+ release form the SR cisternae
f of tendons
much tougher, provides strength and tension in joint, dense fibrous tissue, bone to bone/muscle to muscle/muscle to bone
f of autonomic nervous system
involuntary control of visceral responses
f of diaphysis
strength, center is insulation or shock absorber
f of tympanic membrane
vibrates from sound waves
f of vestibule (ear)
balance
hormone influence of bone growth
growth hormone
stretching muscles beyond normal
movement cannot be generated, tears
ions necessary for nerve impulses
Ca2+, K+, Na+
levels of pH
0-7=acid, 7=neutral, 7-9= base
location of gustatory cells
tongue/mouth
location of myosin
in the thick filaments in the sarcomere
location of optic disc
medial to the macula, nerve processes of the retina meet here
location of simple columnar epithelial tissue
one layer column shaped,
location of simple cuboidal epithelial tissue
one layer cube shape, digestive and ducts
location of simple squamous epithelial tissue
one cell, flat irregular shape, lines things(makes them slick) lining of serous membrane, blood vessels
location of taste buds
frontal 2/3s of tongue
locations of white matter vs. gray matter
white(tracts, structural areas), gray (cortexes..)
major intracellular ions vs. extracellular
extracellular(Na+),
method of storing carbohydrates in the liver
stored as glucose in the liver
most abundant substance in the body
water
order of light passing through eye
conjunctiva, cornea, anterior chamber, pupil, lens, vitreous humor
organization of human body- simple to complex
cell, tissue, organ, organ system
origin of signs of Addison Disease
failure of the adrenal glands, not enough cortisol or aldosterone
pyruvic acid is converted to what
lactic acid
layers of epidermis- responsibilities
r
gustatory cortex- responsibility
taste
olfactory cortex- responsibility
smell
vestibular cortex- responsibility
balance
visceral sensory area- responsibility
internal homeostasis
role of acetylcholine
neurotransmitter that stimulates muscle movement
role of astrocytes
most abundant, versatile, and highly branched glial cells
cling to neurons and their synaptic endings, and cover capillaries
functionally
support and brace the neurons
anchor neurons to their nutrient supplies
guide migration of young neurons
control the chemical environment
role of calcium in muscle contractions
stimulatess interactions between thick and thin filaments
role of cerebrum
higher thought processes- intelligence, personality…
role of cholinesterase
inhibits enzymes
role of ependymal cells
range in shape from squamous to columnar
line central cavities of brain and spinal column
fluid-filled cavities
role of gamma aminobutyric acid
slows down neural responses
role of microglia
small, ovoid cells with spiny processes
phagocytes that monitor the health of neurons
role of norepinephrine
neurotransmitter/hormone secreted in response to stress/mood issues
role of oligodenrocytes
myelin sheath of CNS fibers
role of parasympathetic nervous system
brings body functions back to normal after sympathetic system
role of peripheral nervous system
carries messages to and from the spinal cord and brain
TWO Functional Divisions
sensory (afferent) division
sensory afferent fibers- carry impulses from skin, skeletal muscles, and joints to the brain
visceral afferent fibers- transmit impulses from visceral organs to the brain
motor (efferent) division-
transmits impulses from the CNS to the effector organs
Somatic nervous system (SNS)-
conscious control of skeletal muscles
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)-
regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
Divisions- sympathetic, parasympathetic
role of Schwann cells
formed by schwann cells in the PNS
a schwann cell
envelopes and axon in a trough
encloses the axon with its plasma membrane
has concentric layers of membrane that make up the myelin sheath
Neurilemma- remaining nucleus and cytoplasm of Schwann cell
role of somatic division
control of voluntary skeletal muscles
role of somatic nervous system
voluntary muscle control
role of sympathetic nervous system
fight-or-flight
role of tropomyosin in skeletal muscles
Tropomyosin serves as a contraction inhibitor by blocking the myosin binding sites on the actin molecules.
signs of conjuctivitis
pink conjunctiva, pus seepage
signs of Meniere’s syndrome
vertigo, tinnitus, hearing loss (hearing and balance disorder)
signs of motion sickness
nausea, vertigo
signs of strabismus
eyes that don’t look in the same directions, crossed eyes, double vision
strength of hydrogen bonds
weakest bond in the body
survival needs
basic needs needed, goal of life is to survive
what is found in anterior chamber
aqueous humor
what is found in the cranial cavity
brain and meninges
what is found in the dorsal cavity
spinal cord and meninges, brain
what is found in the lacunae
osteocytes
what is found in the thoracic cavity
heart, lungs, diaphragm, pleural membranes, great vessels
what is found in the vertebral cavity
spine and meninges
what is found in the Volkmann’s canal
channels lying at right angles to the central canal, connecting blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to that of the Haversian canal
what is found within the membranous labyrinth
a clear fluid called endolymph (high concentration of K+, low Na+)
what is the haversian canals
central channel containing blood vessels and nerves
Volkmann’s Canals- channels lying at right angles to the central canal, connecting blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to that of the Haversian canal
what is trabeculae
bone pieces that are joined together by ossification into spongy bone
what stops neurotransmitters
are degraded by enzymes
are reabsorbed by astrocytes or the presynaptic terminals
diffuse from the synaptic cleft
where do we find flagellum
propels, whip-like motion, only cell in human body with it is sperm
Rheumatoid Arthritis
genetic, autoimmune disease- body cannot protect itself
OA (osteoarthritis)
general wear and tear on bones
ionic compound
create electrolytes, held together by electrical current, held together by the neutralization of bases
cytosol
liquid found in cells, colloidal
most common waste product in body
lactic acid
