A-LEVEL CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC CHEMISTRY II.

Question 1

OPTICAL ISOMERISM.

Answer 1

OPTICAL ISOMERISM IS A FORM OF STEREIOSOMERISM, THEY HAVE THE SAME STRUCTURAL FORMULA BUT DIFFERENT ARRANGMENT OF ATOMS IN SPACE.

OPTICAL ISOMERS ARE MIRROR IMAGES OF EACH OTHER AND HAVE A CHIRAL CARBON CHAIN.

Question 2

CHIRAL MOLECULE.

Answer 2

A CHIRAL MOLECULE HAS FOUR,4, DIFFERENT GROUPS ATTACHED TO A CARBON ATOM.

WE CAN ARRANGE THESE GROUPS IN TWO,2, DIFFERENT WAYS WHICH FORM TWO,2, DIFFERENT MOLECULES.

WE CALL THESE ENANTIOMERS.

Question 3

ENANTIOMERS.

Answer 3

ENANTIOMERS ARE MIRRO IMAGES OF EACH OTHER AND ARE NON-SUPERIMPOSABLE.

NO MATTER WHICH WAY YOU TURN THEM THEY WILL NOT OVERLAP.

Question 4

ENANTIOMERS, SHOWOING THEM.

Answer 4

FIRST WE NEED TO FIND THE CHIRAL CENTRE THEN DRAW THEM IN A TETRAHEDRAL 3D SHAPE TO SHOW THEM AS ENANTIOMERS.

Question 5

OPTICALLY ACTIVE ISOMERS.

Answer 5

OPTICALLY ACTIVE ISOMERS WILL ROTATE PLANE POLARISED LIGHT.

THIS IS A METHOD OF DETECTING AN OPTICALLY ACTIVE COMPOUND.

STANDARD LIGHT OSCILLATES IN ALL DIRECTIONS.

WE PASS THE LIGHT THROUGH A POLAROID FILTER TO PRODUCE PLAIN POLARISED LIGHT.

THIS LIGHT ONLY OSCILLATES IN ONE,1, DIRECTION.

OPTICALLY ACTIVE COMPOUNDS WILL ROTATE PLANE POLARISED LIGHT.

ONE ENANTIOMER ROTATES LIGHT CLOCKWISE, THE OTHER WILL ROTATE IT ANTICLOCKWISE.

THEY WILL BOTH ROTATE TO THE SAME DEGREE, SUCH AS THEY WILL BOTH ROATE FIVE,5, DEGREES.

Question 6

RACEMATES.

Answer 6

WHEN WE HAVE AN EQUAL AMOUNT OF EACH ENANTIOMER WE HAVE A RACEMIC MIXTURE.

Question 7

RACEMATES, PLANE POLARISED LIGHT.

Answer 7

RACEMATES DO NOT ROTATE PLANE POLARISED LIGHT.

THE TWO,2, ENANTIOMERS ROTATE LIGHT IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS AND THEY CANCEL EACH OTHER OUT.

Question 8

RACEMIC MIXTURE.

Answer 8

A RAECEMIC MIXTURE OF A CHRIAL PRODUCT IS OFTEN MADE BY REACTING ACHRIAL SUBSTANCES TOGETHER.

Question 9

ACHIRAL.

Answer 9

A CARBON WITH TWO,2, GROUPS THAT ARE DIFFERENT.

Question 10

ACHIRAL FORMING CHIRAL.

Answer 10

WHEN THE MOLECULES REACT THERE IS AN EVEN CHANCES OF FORMING AN ENANTIOMER.

YOU WILL FOR A CHIRAL.

AS WE SEE EITHER OF THE TWO,2, HYDROGEN ATOMS CAN BE REPLACED PRODUCING A MIXTURE OF TWO,2, ENANTIOMERS.

THRE IS A 50/50 CHANCE OF EITHER HYDROGEN BEING REPLACED SO THE ISOMERS ARE MADE IN EQUAL QUANTITIES.

Question 11

PRODUCING ONE,1, ENANTIOMER FROM ACHIRAL.

Answer 11

IT IS VERY DIFFICULT TO ADAPT A REACTION TO ONLY PRODUCE ONE,1, ENANTIOMER AND IT CAN BE EXPENSIVE.

Question 12

MOLECULES WITH PLANAR PROFILES RELATIONSHIP WITH RACEMIC PRODUCTS.

Answer 12

MOLECULES WITH PLANAR PROFILES CAN MAKE RACEMIC PRODUCTS.

FOR EXAMPLE IN SN1 MECHANISMS.

THESE REACTIOSN OCCUR WHEN WE HAVE AN ATTACK ON THE CARBOCATION OF A COMPOUND WHERE A GROUP BREAKS.

IN SN1 REACTIONS THE HALOGEN BREAKS OFF AND A CARBOCATION INTERMEDIATE IS FORMED.

THE REACTION BETWEEN Y- IONAND THE INTERMEDIATE INVOLVES ATTACKING THE PLANAR MOLECULE, PARTICULARLY THE C.

AS THIS IS PLANAR THE Y- ION CAN ATTACK FROM EITH ABOVE OR BELOW FORMING TWO,2, DIFFERENY ENANTIOMER.

Question 13

PLANAR.

Answer 13

SOMETHING THAT IS FLAT.

Question 14

TYPE OF ENANTIOMER FORMED.

Answer 14

THE TYPE OF THE ENANTIOMER FORMED WILL DEPEND ON IF THE Y- IONS ATTACKS FROM THE TOP OR BOTTOM OF THE PLANAR MOLECULE.

DUE TO THE PLANAR NATURE OF THE CARBOCATION THERE IS AN EVEN CHANCE OF THE NUCLEOPHILE ATTACKING FROM THE TOP AND THE BOTTOM.

THIS MEANS THAT WE ARE LIKELY TO GET A 50/50 MIXTURE OF BOTH ENANTIOMERS AND HENCE WE PRODUCE A RACEMIC MIXTURE OF PRODUCTS.

AS WITH ALL RACEMIX MIXTURES, THEY DO NOT ROTATE PLANE POLARISED LIGHT.

THE ROTATION OF PLANE POLARISED LIGHT BY EITHER ENANTIOMER CANCEL OUT.

Question 15

OPTICAL ACTIVITY SN2 REACTIONS.

Answer 15

WITH AN SN2 REACTION WE HAVE A SINGLE ENATIOER PRODUCING ONE ENANTIOMER UNLIKE THE TWO,2, PRODUCED UNDER SN1 MECHANISMS.

IN AN SN2 REACTION BOTH Y- IONS AND THE HALOGENAOLKANE ARE REACTING IN ONE STEP AND THE NUCLEOPHILE A;WAYS ATTACK THE OPPOSITE SIDE OF THE LEAVING GROUP.

THIS MEANS WE ONLY PRODUCE ONE,1, PRODUCT AND THIS PRODUCT WILL ROTATE PLANE POLARISE DLIHT DIFFERENTLY TO THE REACTANT.

Question 16

ALDEHYDES AND KETONES, FUNCTIONAL GROUP.

Answer 16

ALDEHYDES AND KETONES HAVE THE CARBONYL FUNCTIONAL GROUP, C=O.

Question 17

ALDEHYDE AND KETONE DIFFERENCE.

Answer 17

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN ALDEHYDE AND A KETONE IS THE POSITION OF THE CARBONYL, C=O, GROUP,

ALDEYDES,
THEY HAVE THE CARBONYL, C=O, GROUP ON AN END CARBON.

KETONES,
THEY HAVE THE CARBONYL, C=O, GROUP ON AN INNER CARBON.

Question 18

NAMING ALDEHYDES.

Answer 18

ALL ALDEYHYDES HAVE THE ENDING -al.

PROPANAL, ETHANAL.

Question 19

NAMING KETONES.

Answer 19

ALL KETONES HAVE THE ENDING -one.

PROPANONE, PETAN-2-ONE.

Question 20

ALDEHYDES AND KETONES BOILING POINTS.

Answer 20

ALDEHYDES AND KETONES HAVE RELATIVELY LOW BOILING POIRNTS IN COMPARISION TO ALCOHOLS, THIS IS ALL DOWN TO INTERMOLECULAR FORCES.

ALDEHYDES AND KETONES INTERACT WITH EACH OTHER VIA LONDON FORCES AND PERMANENT DIPOLE-PERMANENT DIPOLE BONDS AS THERE IS POLARITY WITHIN THE MOLECULES.

HOWEVER UNLIKE ALCOHOLS THEY DO NO HAVE AN O-H GROUP SO DO NOT HAVE INTERACT VIA THE STRONGEST INTERMOLECULAR FORCE, HYDROGEN BONDING.

THIS MEANS ALDEHYDED AND KETONES GENERALLY HAVE LOWER BOILING POINTS THAN THEIR ALCOHOL COUNTERPARTS.

Question 21

ALDEHYDES AND KETONES, HYDROGEN BONDS.

Answer 21

ALDEHYDES AND KETONES CAN HYDROGEN BOND WITH WATER AND SO SOME HAVE TJHE ABILITY TO DISSOLVE IN WATER.

THE LONE PAIR OF ELECTRONS ON THE OXYGEN ON THE C=O CAN FORM HYDROGEN BONDS WITH THE DELTA POSITIVE HYDROGEN ATOMS ON WATER MOLECULES.

Question 22

ALDEHYDE AND KETONE, SOLUBILITY.

Answer 22

ONLY SMALLER ALDEHYDES AND KETONES WILL DISSOLVE.

LARGER ONES HAVE LONGER HYDROCARBON COMPONENTS THAT ARE NON-POLAR AND AND THESE CAN DISRUPT THE HYDROGEN BONDING WITH WATER MOLECULES.

IF THE ALDEHYDE OR KETONE IS LARGE ENOUGH THEN THE LONDON FORCES BETWEEN THE NON-POLAR HYDROCARBON CHAIN WILL BE STRONGER THAN THE HYDROGEN BONDING BETWEEN THE C=O ABD THE HYDROGEN,H, ON WATER MOLECULES.

THIS MEANS LARGER ALDEHYDES AND KETONES WILL NOT DISSOLVE.

Question 23

TESTING FOR ALDEHYDES AND KETONES.

Answer 23

ACIDIFIED POTASSIUM DICHROMATE, K2Cr2O7, CAN BE USED TP DISTINGUISH BETWEEN ALDEHYDES AND KETONES.

ACIDIFIED POTASSIUM DICHROMATE OXIDISES ALDEHYDES BUT NOT KETONES.

ALDEHYDES:
THESE ARE OXIDISED USING ACIDIFIED POTASSIUM DICHROMATE.

THIS IS A MILD OXIDISING AGENT SO IS REDUCED ITSELF.

IT WILL TURN FROM ORANGE TO GREEN.

KETONES CAN NOT BE OXIDISED SO THERE IS NO COLOUR CHANGE.

Question 24

ACIDIFIED POTASSIUM DICHROMATE, COLOUR CHANGE.

Answer 24

TURN FROM ORANGE, Cr2O7 2-, DICHROMATE ION, TO GREEN, Cr 3+ CHROMIUM ION IN ALDEHYDES.

Question 25

ACIDIFIED POTASSIUM DICHROMATE.

Answer 25

Cr2O7 2- + 14H+ + 6e- -> 2Cr 3+ + 7H2O.

Question 26

TOLLENS’ REAGENT.

Answer 26

TOLLENS’ REAGENT CAN BE MADE FIRST THEN USED TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN AN ALDHEYDE AND A KETONE.

TOLLENS IS MADE BY REACTING SILVER NITRATE WITH AQEOUS AMMONIA, WHEN REACTED WITH ALDEHYDE IT REACTS THE FOLLOWING WAY:

2Ag(NH3)2 + + RCHO + 3OH- -> 2Ag +RCOO- + 4NH3 +2H2O.

ALL AQEOUS, (aq), BESEIDES FROM THE WATER WHCIH IS A LIQUID, (l.).

IT CAN BE SIMPLIFIED TO:
Ag(NH3)2 + + e- -> Ag + 2NH3.

ALL AQEOUS, (aq), BESIDES FROM THE Ag, WHICH IS A SOLID, (s.).

Question 27

TOLLENS’ REAGENT EXPLINATION.

Answer 27

TOLLENS’ CONTAISN [Ag(NH3)2]+ AND IS ADDED WARM TO ALDEHYDES, TOLLENS’ REDUCE SILVER WHICH COATS THE INSIDE OF THE FLASK.

KETONES, NO SILVER PRECIPITATE FORMED.

Question 28

TOLLENS’ REAGENT USE.

Answer 28

ADD ALDEHYDE./.= KETONE TO TOLLENS’ REAGENT AND PLACE IN HOT WATER BATH.

WE DO NOT USE A BUNSEN FLAME AS ALDEHYDES AND KETONES ARE FLAMMABLE.

Question 29

REDUCING ALDEHYDES AND KETONES.

Answer 29

ALDEHYDES AND KETONES CAN BE REDUCED TOP FORM PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ALCOHOLS.

REDUCING AGENTS SUCH AS SOLUTIOSN NaBH4, ALSO KNOWN SODIUM BOROHYDRIDE OR SODIUM TETRADRIDOBORATE (III) DISSOLVED IN METHANOL AND WATER CANB REDUCE ALDEHYDES AND KETONES.

ALDEHYDES, ARE REDUCED TO PRIMARY ALCOHOLS.

BY BEING REDUCED, WE MEANS THAT THEY GAIN TWO,2, HYDROGEN ATOMS.

KETONES, ARE REDUCED TO SECONDARY ALCOHOLS.

Question 30

POTASSIUM CYANIDE WITH CARBONYL COMPOUNDS.

Answer 30

POTASSIUM CYANIDE REACTS WITH CARBONYL COMPOUNDS TO PRODUCE HYDROXYNITRILES.

THE REACTION OCURS VIA A NUCLEOPHILIC ADDITION MECHANISM SO THE MEANS A NUCLEOPHILE, CN- IONS, ATTACKS THE CARBONYL GROUP, C=O, AND ADDS ON TO MAKE A HYDROXYNITRILE, MOLECULE CNTAISN OH AND CN GROUP.

POTASSIUM CYANIDE IS USED TO PRODUCE THE CN- IONS.

WHEN DISSOLVED IN ACIDIC SOLUTION IT DISSOCIATES TO FORM K+ AND CN- IONS.

KCN -> K+ + CN-.

IMMEDIATELY, TWO,2, ELECTRONS IN THE DOUBLE BOND TRANSFER TO THE OXYGEN.

THE POSITIVELY CHARGED CARBON IS ATTACKED BY THE CYANIDE ION, NUCLEOPHILE.

THE LONE PAIR OF ELECTRONS ARE DONATED FROM THE CN- ION.

HYDROGEN CYANIDE, HCN, CAN ALSO BE USED AN REACTS IN THE WAY AS KCN HOWEVER NO ACID IS REQUIRED.

IF WE USE AN UNSYMMETRICAL KETONE OR ALDEHYDE, APART FROM MATHANAL.

A MIXTURE OF ENANTIOMERS IS PRODUCED.

Question 31

USING POTSASSIUM CYANIDE.

Answer 31

WHEN WE USE POTASSIUM CYANIDE WE NEED TO ASSES THE RISK OF USING IT.

POTASSIUM CYANIDE IS AN IRRITANT AND IS VERY DANGEROUS IF INGESTED OR INHALED.

WHEN POTASSIUM CYANIDE REACTS WITH MOISTURE IT CAN FORM THE TOXIC GAS, HYDROGEN CYANIDE.

WEAR A LAB COAT TO PREVENT CLOTHING CONTAMINATION.

WEAR SAFETY GOGGLES AT ALL TIMES.

USE A FUME CUPBOARD TO PREVENT EXPOSURE TO TOXIC FUMES.

WEAR GLOVES WHILE HANDLING.

Question 32

BRADYS’ REAGENT.

Answer 32

BRADYS’ REAGENT OR 2,4-DINITROPHENYLHYDRAZIN, 2,4-DNPH, CAN BE USED TO IDENTIFY A CARBONYL GROUP.

BRADYS’ REAGENT IS DISSOLVED IN CONCENTRATED SULFURIC ACID AND METHANOL AND THEN ADDED TO THE SUBSTANCE UNDER TEST.

IF A CARBONYL GROUP EXISTS A BRIGHT ORANGE PRECIPITATE IS FORMED.

IT ONLY REACTS WITH C=O IN ADELHYDES AND KETONES, NOT IN CARBOXYLIC ACIDS.

THE ORANGE PRECIPITATE IS A DERIVATIVE OF A CARBONYL COMPOUND WHICH IS PURIFIED THROUGH RECRYSTALISATION.

DIFFERENT CARBONYL COMPOUNDS PRODUCE DIFFERENT DERIVATIVES.

THEY HAVE DIFFERENT MELTING POINTS SO THEY CAN BE IDENTIFIED AGAINST LIBRARY OF KNOWN MELTING POINTS.

Question 33

CARBONYL REACTION WITH IODINE.

Answer 33

CARBONYL GROUPS THAT HAVE A METHYL GROUP ATTACHED, CH3, REACT WITHM IODINE.

IF WE HEAT IODINE IN THE PRESENCE OF AN ALKALI WITH A METHYL CARBONYL GROUP THEN WE WILL PRODUCE A YELLOW PRECIPITATE CALLED TRIIODOMETHANE, CHI3.

RCOCH3 + 3I2 + 4OH- -> RCOO- + CHI3+ 3I- + 3H2O.

Question 34

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS.

Answer 34

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS HAVE THE CARBOXYL, -COOH, FUNCTIONAL GROUP WHICH CONTAINS BOTH A CARBONYL GROUP, C=O, AND A HYDROXYL GROUP, O-H.

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS ARE NAMED BY FINDING THE LONGEST CARBON CHAIN THEN ADDING, -OIC ACID, ON THE END.

WHEN NAMING CARBOXYLIC ACIDS THE CARBON ON THE CARBOXYL GROUP IS ALWATS CARBON ONE,1.

THE CARBOXYL GROUP WILL ALWAYS BE AT THE END OF THE MOLECULE.

Question 35

CARBOXYLIC ACID SOLUBILITY.

Answer 35

CARBOCYLIC ACIDS CAN HYDROGEN BOND WITH WATER AND SO SOME HAVE THE ABILITY TO DISSOLVE IN WATER.

THE LONE PAIR OF ELECTRONS ON THE OXYGEN ON THE C=O CAN FORM HYDROGEN BONDS WITH THE HYDROGEN ATOMS ON WATER MOLECULES.

IN ADDITION OXYGEN ON WATER MOLECULES CAN HYDROGEN BOND WITH THE HYDROGEN ON THE O-H GROUP IN A CARBOXYLIC.

ONLY SMALLER CARBOXYLIC ACIDS WILL DISSOLVE.

LARGER ONES HAVE LOGNER HYDROCARBON COMPONENTS AND ARE NON-POLAR AND THESE CAN DISRUPT THE HYDROGEN BONDING WITH WATER MOLECULES.

Question 36

DIMERS.

Answer 36

DIMERS CAN FORM WHEN WE HAVE A PURE, LIQUID FORM OF A CARBOXYLIC ACID.

A DIMER IS WHERE A CARBOXYLIC ACID HYDROGEN BONDS WITH EACH OTHER.

THE NET EFFECT IS THE BOILING POINT INCREASES AS THE ‘JOINED MOLECULES” ARE LARGER SO THE INTERMOLECULAR FORCES ARE GREATER.

Question 37

WHAT CAN CARBOXYLIC ACIDS BE MADE FROM?

Answer 37

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS CAN BE MADE FROM NITRILES, ALDEHYDES AND PRIMARY ALCOHOLS.

PRIMARY ALCOHOLS AND ALDEHYDES ARE OXIDISED TO CARBOXYLIC ACIDS USING AN OXIDISING AGENT.

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS ARE ALSO MADE BY THE HYDROLYSIS OF NITRILES.

NITRILE + 2H2O + 2HCl -> [O] CARBOXYLIC ACID + NH4Cl.

Question 38

WHAT TYPE OF ACID ARE CARBOXYLIC ACIDS?

Answer 38

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS ARE WEAK ACIDS.

Question 39

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS REACTION WITH CARBONATES.

Answer 39

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS REACT WITH CARBONATES TO FORM CARBON DIOXIDE AND BASES TO FORM SALTS.

AS THEY ARE ACIDS THEY REACT WITH CARBONATES, CO3 2-, TPO FORM A SALT, CARBON DIOXIDE GAS AND WATER.

THE CARBOXYLIC ACID WILL LOOSE A HYDROGEN AND GAIN ANOTHER ELEMENT.

Question 40

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS DISSOCIATION.

Answer 40

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS ARE WEAK ACIDS WHICH MEANS THEY DISSOCIATE PARTIALLY TO FORM A H+ ION AND A CARBOXYLATE ION.

RCOOH -> RCOO- + H+.

EQUILIBRIUM LIES TO THE LEFT AS IT DISSOCIATES POORLY.

Question 41

CARBOXYLIC ACID REDUCTIONS.

Answer 41

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS CAN BE REDUCED TO ALCOHOLS THEY CAN ALSO BE REACTED TO FORM ACYL CHLORIDES.

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS CAN BE REDUCED HOWEVER A POWERFUL REDUCING AGENT MUST BE USED SUCH AS, LiAlH4, LITHIUM ALUMINIUM HYDROXIDE, IN A DRY ETHER SOLVENT.

WATER, H2O, IS ALSO USED AS A REAGENT.

YOU WILL FORM A PRIMARY ALCOHOL.

IF WE REACT A CARBOXYLIC ACID WITH PHOSPHOROUS(V) CHLORIDE WE PRODUCE AN ACYL CHLORIDE.

CARBOXYLIC ACID + PCl5 -> CH3CClO + POCl3 + HCl.

Question 42

ESTERFICATION.

Answer 42

ESTERFICATION IS THE FORMATION OF ESTERS.

REACTING ALCOHOLS WITH CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND ACID ANHYDRIDES CAN BE USED TO MAKE ESTERS WHICH HAVE THE -COO- GROUP.

AN ESTER IS PRODUCED WHEN WE REACT A CARBOXYLIC ACID WITH AN ALCOHOL AND SULFURIC ACID CATALYST UNDER RFLUX.

WE FORM THE ESTER AND WATER AS THE PRODUCTS.

WE SEPARATE THE ESTER THROUGH DISTIILLATION HOWEVER THIS MUST BE DONE IN-SITU AS THE REACTION IS REVERSIBLE.

TO PURIFY THE ESTER WE ADD SODIUM CARBONATE SOLUTINO TO REMOVE A CARBOXYLIC ACIS THAT REMAINS.

THE LAYER ON THE TOP AFTER THE ADDITION OF SODIUM CARBONATE SOLUTION IS THE ESTER AND THIS CAN BE SEPARATED USING A SEPRATING FUNNEL.

Question 43

NAMING ESTERS.

Answer 43

ESTERS ARE NAMED IN TWO,2, SECTIONS, THE FIRST BIT IS NAMED FROM THE ALCOHOL USED AND THE SECOND BIT IS NAMED FROM THE CARBOXYLIC ACID.

FOR EXAMPLE,
REACTING ETHANOL WITH PROPANOIC ACID.

ETHYL PROPANOATE.

ETHANOL WITH 2-METHYLPROPANOIC ACID.

ETHYL 2-METHYLPROPANOATE.

Question 44

ESTERS USE.

Answer 44

ESTERS ARE USED COMMERCIALLY AND IN INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES.

PERFUMES AND FOOD FLAVOURINGS.
SOME ESTERS HAVE SWEET SMELLS SUCH AS PEAR DROPS.
THIS MAKES THEM IDEAL IN FRAGRANCES AND FOOD PRODUCTS.

SOLVENTS.
ESTERS ARE POLAR SO OTHER POLAR COMPOUNDS WILL DISSOLVE READILY IN ESTERS.
THEY ALSO HAVE LOW BOILING POINTS AND EVAPORATE EASILY.
THIS MAKES THEM VALUBLE IN MAKING GLUES.

PLASTICISERS.
ESTERS ARE USED TO MAKE PLASTICS MORE FLEXIBLE DURING THE POLYMERISATION POCESS.
THEY CAN LEACH OUT OF THE PLASTIC OVER TIME AND THE PLASTIC DOES BECOME BRITTLE.

Question 45

ESTER HYDROLYSIS.

Answer 45

ESTERS CAN BE HYDROLYSED, SPLIT USING WATER, HOWEVER IT CAN BE SPED UP USING AN ACID, ACID HYDROLYSIS, AND A BASE, BASE HYDROLYSIS.

Question 46

ESTERS, ACID HYDROLTYSI.

Answer 46

HERE WE USE DILUTE ACID TO SPLIT AN ESTER INTO A CARBOXYLIC ACID AND AN ALCOHOL.

WE CAN USE SULFURIC OR HYDROCHLORIC ACID AND THE REACTION IS CONDUCTED UNDER REFLUX.

THE ADDITION OF MORE WATER SHIFTS EQUILIBRIUM TO THE RIGHT, MORE PRODUCT PRODUCT.

Question 47

BASE HYDROLYSIS.

Answer 47

HERE WE USE A DILUTE BASE TOSPLIT AN ESTER INOT A CARBOXYLATE ION AND AN ALCOHOL.

WE CAN USE THE BASE SHOWN BY OH- IONS.

WE CAN USE SODIUM HYDROXIDE AND TH REACTION IS CONDUCTED UNDER REFLUX.

Question 48

POLYESTERS.

Answer 48

POLYESTERS ARE FORMED BY REACTING DICARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND DIOLS TOGETHER.

DIOLS ARE COMPOUNDS THAT HAVE TWO,2, -OH GROUPS.

DICARBOXYLIC ACIDS ARE COMPOUNDS THAT HAVE TWO,2, -OH GROUPS AND TWO,2, C=O GROUPS.

THEY ARE JOINED TOGETHER BY AN ESTER LINK.

Question 49

TERYLENE.

Answer 49

TERYLENE IS A POLYESTER THAT IS USED IN PLASTIC DRINK BOTTLES, SHEETING AND CLOTHES.

IT ALSO HAS THE ACRONYM PET.

IT IS MADE FROM BENZENE-1,4-DICARBOXYLIC ACID AND ETHANE-1,2-DIOLE.

Question 50

ACYL CHLORIDES.

Answer 50

ACYL CHLORIDES, ALSO KNOWN AS ACID CHLORIDES, HAVE THE FUNCTIONAL GROUP -COCl WHICH CONTAISN THE ACYL GROUP, COCl.

WE FIND THE LONGEST CARBON CHAIN THEN ADD, OYL CHLORIDE, ON THE END.

WHEN NAMING ACYL CHLORIDED THE CARBON ON THE ACYL GROUP IS ALWAYS CARBON ONE,1.

THE ACYL GROUP WILL ALWAYS BE AT THEN END OF THE MOLECULE.

Question 51

ACYL CHLORIDES REACTION WITH WATER.

Answer 51

WE ADD WATER AND PRODUCE A CARBOXYLIC ACID AND HCl.

THE ACYL CHLORIDE LOOSES THE CL AND GAINS AN -OH GROUP IN ITS PLACE.

THIS IS A VIGOROUS REACTION AND WHITE MISTY FUMES OF HYDROGEN CHLORIDE GAS ARE PRODUCED.

Question 52

ACYL CHLORIDES REACTION WITH AMMNOIA.

Answer 52

ACYL CHLORIDES REACT WITH AMMONIA TO PRODUCE AMIDES.

ACYL CHLORIDE REATS WITH AMMONIA, NH3, AND LOOSES ITS Cl GROUP, AND IS REPLACED WITH NH2.

WE ALOS PRODUCE HCL AS A PRODUUCT.

THIS IS A VIGOROUS REACTION AND WHITE MISTY FUMES OF HYDROGEN CHLORIDE GAS ARE PRODUCED.

Question 53

ACYL CHLORIDES REACTION WITH ESTERS.

Answer 53

ACYL CHLORIDES REACT WITH ALCOHOLS TO PRODUCE ESTERS.

THE ACYL CHLORIDE LOOSES IT Cl GROUP, AND IT IS REPLACED BY THE ALCOHOL MINUS ONE HYDROGEN,H, ATOM.

WE ALSO GET HCl AS A PRODUCT.

THIS IS A VIGOROUS REACTION AND WHITE MISTY FUMES OF HYDROGEN CHLORIDE GAS ARE PRODUCED.

Question 54

ACYL CHLORIDES REACTION WITH PRIMARY AMINES.

Answer 54

ACYL CHLORIDES REACT WITH PRIMARY AMINES TO PRODUCE N-SUBSTITUTES AMIDES.

THIS IS A VIGOROUS REACTION AND WHITE MISTY FUMES OF HYDROGEN CHLORIDE GAS ARE PRODUCED.

MINUS ONE,1, HYDROGEN.