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AQA A-level Physical Education Year 2 > 9.1: Information Processing > Flashcards

9.1: Information Processing Flashcards

1
Q

Information processing definition:

A
  • the process of taking account of the sporting environment and then making decisions prior to the execution of the skill.
  • the methods by which data from the environment are collected and utilised
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2
Q

What are the three parts of information processing?

A
  • input
  • decision making
  • output
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3
Q

What is the input?

A
  • display = sporting environment
  • includes aspects of the pitch, refers to the sport specific items as as the opposition, the court, the crowd, the ball, the officials and team mates.
  • receptor systems
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4
Q

What are receptor systems?

A
  • the senses that pick up information from the display

The receptor systems include:
- sight or vision
- auditory/hearing
- touch
- balance
- kinesthesis

  • hearing and sight are classed as external senses as information is collected from the environment.
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5
Q

Sight/vision example:

A
  • performer can pick up the flight of the ball or the position of an opponent.
  • picking up such information early is crucial allowing the performer a split second more to make their decisions
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6
Q

Auditory/hearing example:

A
  • call of a team mate, edge of a bat, sound of a referee’s whistle.
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7
Q

Internal senses definition:

A
  • (proprioceptors) the senses that provide internal information from within the body.
  • these senses provide intrinsic feedback about touch, balance and kinesthesis.
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8
Q

Touch example:

A
  • the sense of touch is important to feel for the grip of the ball/feel for the springboard used by a diver
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9
Q

Balance example:

A
  • a basketball player who must be balanced before shooting/gymnastics beam routine.
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10
Q

Kinesthesis example:

A
  • the inner senses that give information about body position and muscular tension.
  • e.g. a swimmer will use the sense of kinesthesis to help them aware of their body position during a tumble-turn.
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11
Q

Decision making definition:

A
  • making a decision based on all the information collected by the senses.
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12
Q

Selective attention definition:

A
  • filtering relevant information from irrelevant information.
  • in autonomous learners, the process of SA is almost automatic.
  • experience builds the effectiveness of the process but SA can be developed by both coaches and performer.
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13
Q

Sporting example - selective attention:

A
  • tennis; the flight, spin and pace of the ball.
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14
Q

Stimuli definition:

A
  • the important and relevant items of information from the display such as the flight of the ball.
  • if the stimulus is more intense, loud or bright it will develop concentration.
  • e.g. the use of a brightly coloured ball may help the player to pick up the pace of the ball.
  • the performer may learn to ignore the irrelevant information by training with distractions in a realistic environment. e.g. to avoid distractions the England rugby team (2014 Six Nations) prepared by training to the Welsh national anthem and other sounds such as passionate crowds etc.
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15
Q

How can selective attention be developed?

A
  • improved motivation will help the process of selective attention.
  • Coach and player could use rewards and positive comments and once motivation is increased the performer becomes more alter to the important information.
  • mental practice: running through the task in the mind without movement.
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16
Q

What are the benefits of selective attention?

A
  • can improve reaction time
  • improves the chance of making the correct decision
  • by ignoring the irrelevant information a player may be able to concentrate on more detailed aspects of the task.
  • happens in the perceptual mechanisms.
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17
Q

DCR - perception definition:

A
  • the process of coding and interpreting sensory information
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18
Q

What is the DCR?

A
  • perception involves three aspects:
  • detection
  • comparison
  • recognition
  • happens in the translatory mechanisms
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19
Q

Detection definition:

A
  • the performer has picked up the relevant information as important; using the senses and the process of selective attention.
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20
Q

Comparison definition:

A
  • trying to match the information already in the memory of the performer
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21
Q

Recognition definition:

A
  • the performer has used information from the memory to identify an appropriate response. The response can then be put into action.
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22
Q

Translatory mechanisms:

A
  • the translatory mechanisms help to convert information so that decisions can be made.
  • the info from the senses is filtered and then adapted into an image that can be sent to the memory for comparison.
  • the translatory mechanism uses past experiences so that info received can be linked with these past experiences and sent to the memory system.
  • similar actions which have been stored in the memory can be recognised and then used via our motor programmes.
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23
Q

Output:

A
  • effector mechanism
  • feedback
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24
Q

Effector mechanism definition:

A
  • network of nerves that sends coded impulses to the muscles.
  • the muscles will receive the information in the form of coded impulses and once this impulse is received then the muscles will contract and the response can begin.
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25
Q

Feedback definition:

A
  • information used during or after the response to aid movement correction.
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26
Q

Information processing method:

A
  • environment
  • display
  • receptor systems
  • perceptual mechanisms
  • translatory mechanisms
  • effector mechanism
  • muscles begin to contract
  • output
  • feedback
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27
Q

Whitings information processing model:

A
  • see notes
28
Q

Advantages of …

A
  • faster decisions
  • prevents overload of memory
  • helps to focus on the aspect of the task
29
Q

The memory system - Baddeley and Hitch (1978) diagram:

A
  • see notes
30
Q

central executive definition:

A
  • the control centre of the working memory model, it uses the three other ‘systems’ to control all the information moving in and out of the memory system.
31
Q

Phonological loop definition:

A
  • deals with auditory information from the senses and helps produces the memory race.
32
Q

Visuospatial sketchpad definition:

A
  • used to temporarily store visual and spatial awareness
33
Q

Episodic buffer definition:

A
  • coordinates the sight, hearing and movement information from the working memory into sequences to be sent to the long term memory.
34
Q

The working memory:

A
  • consists of a central control centre, known as the central executive.
  • the central executive has overall control over all the information entering and leaving the working memory
  • it quickly identifies which information should be sent to one of its sub-memory system.
  • these sub-divisions of the working memory are none as sub-systems and they perform different functions.
35
Q

Phonological loop:

A
  • e.g. the coach’s instructions, the fall of a team mate or the sound of a ball hitting a racket.
  • it has a phonological store and an articulatory system that helps it produce a memory trace.
  • this memory trace, which is an initial mental idea of the skill, can be sent to the LTM where it can trigger a motor programme, or images that contain components of a skill so that this motor programme can be used to produce a movement.
36
Q

The visuospatial sketchpad:

A
  • concerns visual and spatial information - helps process information about the feel of the movement such as the flight of the gymnast during a vault.
  • holds information about what we see and is further divided into two sections - the visual cache which holds info about form and colour, and the inner scribe which deals with spatial and movement information.
  • suggests that information about sporting actions can be recognised and acted upon.
37
Q

The episodic buffer:

A
  • responsible for coordinating the work of the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad into sequences.
  • it produces integrated sequences of sight, sound and movements which can be sent to the LTM.
  • these sequences produce patterns of skilled actions that are put in order and sent to the LTM.
  • these sequences are the starting point for the initiation of motor programmes, which are patterns of the whole skill, and can be used to produce movement.
  • the information about the path of the ball, the sound of the ball in the stick and the position of the live may help the skill of receiving the ball before making a dribble in hockey.
38
Q

How do the working memory and LTM work together?

A
  • LTM: receives information from the working memory and has an unlimited capacity for the storage of motor programmes.
  • the first job of the working memory is to pick up the relevant information from the sporting environment and once this information is received, the memory goes to work.
  • selective attention is used to filter out irrelevant information
  • the working memory has links with LTM, sending coded information for future storage and use.
  • having collected the relevant info, the working memory produces a memory trace, a mental snapshot of the skill being used, and then works with its partner, LTM by sending this memory trace so that the trace can be compared to the information already contained in the LTM.
  • the LTM can then send info back to the working memory for use in the current sporting situation. It is therefore apparent that the memories work together in a two way process to help the performer compare information and decisions.
39
Q

Features and functions of the memory system:

A
  • the working memory initiates the action by sending the memory trace.
  • the working memory had a limited capacity. Too much information/ information get laid could mean that important info is lost or disregarded by the performer. It is therefore useful that selective attention limits the amount of info sent to the working memory
  • limited capacity and limited time-scale - lasts for around 30 seconds until the info is lost or used.
  • important info can be stored in the LTM in the form of a motor programme, a more permanent trace of a skill consisting of all the components that make up that skill.
  • the LTM has a large capacity, e.g. swimming
40
Q

Storing information:

A
  • the key to effective use of the memory system in sport is to ensure that useful information and motor programmes are stored in the LTM so that learned skills can be moved back to the working memory for use at the current time.
41
Q

Strategies to ensure items are stored in the LTM:

A
  • rewards: extrinsic and intrinsic help to motivate the performer to want to remember correct actions.
  • association: linking the stored actions of a skill to a stored emotion or any action, e.g. spinning - the feeling of satisfaction and pride generated from the reward of a certificate can be linked with the swimming action used to earn that reward snd so actions are remembered.
  • mental practice: going over the action in the mind without physical movement. Sub routines are imagined over and over again without movement to help store information. E.g. correct sequence of a serial skill.
  • breaking the task down into parts can help to prevent information overload. Set routines in sport, leaning the different stages to store in the LTM.
  • chunking: breaking the skilled action into parts or sub-routines
  • focus: focusing in the task in hand and ignoring distractions help with selective attention.
  • repetition of a skill: repeated practice will ensure that skills are coded and stored as motor programmes in the LTM.
  • chaining: items of information recalled as a sequence so that one movement links to the next which helps store the information.
42
Q

Schema theory:

A
  • Schmidt suggested that there would be a motor programme for a skill and that can be adapted to suit their current needs.
  • e.g. hockey passing - one motor programme rather than multiple. OR shooting in football.
43
Q

Parameters of a schema:

A
  • initial conditions
  • response specifications
  • sensory consequences
  • response outcome
44
Q

Initial conditions:

A
  • information from the environment - position on the court, the placing of the limbs prior to the action.
45
Q

Response specifications

A
  • information about what to do.
  • what is expected?; how far is the nearest player and how far do I need to pass the ball?
46
Q

Sensory consequences:

A
  • information about the feel of the skill - concerns the use of senses to help guide the skill
  • the grip of a rugby ball may be controlled by the sense of touch, the strength of the netball pass may be controlled by the feel of the movement during the arm action.
47
Q

Response outcome:

A
  • feedback about the result - here the schema and motor programme can be adapted by getting knowledge of the result of the action.
  • did the pass reach its intended target?
  • if successful, the schema has been successful, if not adjustments may be made for next time and the MP is adapted.
48
Q

Recall + recognition schema:

A
  • recall: initial conditions and response specifications.
  • Initial movement, comes before the action
  • recognition: sensory consequences and response outcome
  • controls movement, happens during the action
49
Q

Implications for coaching:

A
  • using varied practice: changing the type and content of the practice session - passing in basketball, 3 vs 2, 5 vs 4, attack vs defence.
  • while such tasks are being undertaken, the coach should offer frequent feedback to the player to ensure that actions and motor programmes can be adjusted.
  • the coach should point out and explain to the player when a schéma can be used, e.g. situations when the netball player may be able to adjust their netball pass for use in a basketball court. Parts of the skill that can be transferred should be pointed out.
  • should such adaptations be made successful, then the coach could offer reinforcement in the form of praise to the player to encourage further use of scheme in other situations.
50
Q

Reaction time definition:

A
  • the time taken from the onset of a stimulus to the onset of a response. No movement.
51
Q

Movement time definition:

A
  • the time taken to complete the task.
  • time taken before pushing off the blocks and finishing a sprint start.
52
Q

Response time definition:

A
  • the time taken from the onset of a stimulus to the completion of a task
  • response time = reaction time + movement time
  • e.g. time between hearing the gun and completing the sprint start. e.g, 100m sprint or speed climbing
53
Q

Example - cricket fielder:

A
  • reaction time: picking up the flight of the ball as it leaves the bat until just before the first movement to go towards the ball.
  • movement time: would be from making the first step towards the ball but catching the ball in hands.
  • response time: would be picking up the stimulus of the flight of the hall until the catch is made.
54
Q

Simple reaction time definition:

A
  • when there is one specific response to one stimuli (e.g. 100m sprint/swimming)
55
Q

Choice reaction time definition:

A
  • choosing from numerous stimuli and the response time is much slower.
  • e.g. in hockey a midfield get to choose the correct stimulus from various indicators on the pitch and may also have to choose the correct response from various options.
56
Q

Factors that influence response time:

A
  • Hick’s Law
  • the single-channel hypothesis
  • the psychological refractory period
  • anticipation
57
Q

Hick’s Law:

A
  • Hick’s Law: reaction time increases as the number of choices increase
  • it’s not that straight forward and as the player becomes more familiar with their environment, responses can become quicker.
  • as it clearly shows as choices increase, the response time is slower; but it may also show a curved shape because the rate at which responses are slowed by increasing choice reduces as the environment becomes familiar. Hence the number of choices is reduced.
58
Q

The single-channel hypothesis:

A
  • states that stimuli can only be processed at one time.
  • therefore a second stimulus must wait until the first has been processed. Any following stimuli must also wait to be processed.
  • the delay in processing a second stimulus increase response time and goes some way to explaining Hick’s Law.
59
Q

The psychological refractory period:

A
  • a delay when a second stimulus is presented before the first has been processed.
  • the confusion caused by the arrival of a second stimulus before we had processed the first is called PRP.
  • the performer could freeze completely for the split second ti takes to sort out the conflicting information.
  • in tennis, when volleying a forehand, the ball may deflect off the nets and got the backhand. The player will have to sort out the new and correct stimulus, but first they will have to disregard the old and now useless stimulus and this causes a delay.
60
Q

anticipation:

A
  • prejudging a stimulus
  • tries to work out what is going to happen before it does using body language, cues, information from the environment etc.
  • can be learned via researching the opponent.
61
Q

Temporal anticipation definition:

A
  • pre-judging when a stimulus is going to happen.
62
Q

spatial anticipation definition:

A
  • where and what is going to happen
63
Q

Anticipation sporting example:

A
  • a high ball catch in rugby. The player needs to know where on the pitch the ball will land and when it will get there
64
Q

Ways to improve response time:

A
  • players can use mental practice. By going over the task in the mind prior to the action, the response preparation process is improved and the action can be or edited and so made quicker.
  • during practice the performer could train to the specific stimulus expected in the game. E.g. goalkeeper practice saving penalties to their left if the opposition penalty taker has a preference for that side.
  • the performer could learn to focus and concentrate during the game so that the stimulus is picked up early. To help with concentration, the coach could make such stimuli intense. Pointing out the exact areas in which to place the hands during a gymnastic vault and highlighting this area with chalk.
  • improved fitness improves reaction time. Interval training and plyometrics might improve speed and power during the movement part of the response.
  • if appropriate, the player may also try to use anticipation to predict the stimulus especially if the player has done their research on the opponent, e.g. a goalkeeper researching penalty kicks taken by the opponent.
65
Q

PRP diagram + explanation:

A
  • S1: the first stimulus, e.g. the ball to the right for a right-hand volley in tennis.
  • R1: the response to S1, a right-handed forehand volley.
  • S2: the ball hitting the net meaning the volley is now not going to happen.
  • R2: the response to the deflection which will happen, or not, after a delay whilst S1 is dealt with even though it may not now happen.

AQA A-level Physical Education Year 2 (16 decks)

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