9- Social Psychology Flashcards
Which of the following is most true about the results of research investigating the effects of television viewing on children?
Select one:
A. TV violence does not cause or contribute to aggression in children.
B. Preschool children cannot discriminate between commercials and TV shows.
C. Lower SES children watch more television as compared to higher SES children.
D. Television models are ineffective in altering children’s prosocial behavior.
Correct Answer is: C
Research has shown that children from low income families, on the average, watch more television than higher socioeconomic level children, and this is especially true of African-American low income children.
All the other choices are not true. Many studies have confirmed that television violence is correlated with aggression in children; in addition, research has demonstrated that prosocial programming can have a positive impact on children’s behavior. And research has also shown that children as young as age three or four years can correctly distinguish between TV programming and commercials, though they cannot verbalize what a commercial is, what they are shown on television, and what the difference between a program and a commercial is.
Additional Information: Social Learning Theory
Which of Glick and Fiske's (1996, 2001) theories start from the premise that the relations between the genders are characterized by the coexistence of power differences and intimate interdependence? Select one: A. stereotype content model B. social role theory C. ambivalent sexism theory D. sexual prejudice
Correct Answer is: C
Glick and Fiske’s (1996, 2001) Ambivalent Sexism Theory (AST) describes two complementary, cross-culturally prevalent ideologies called hostile and benevolent sexism, both of which predict gender inequality. Both hostile and benevolent attitudes about each gender encompass three domains of female-male relations instantiating power differences and interdependence: patriarchy (or men’s structural power), gender differentiation (division of labor between the genders, gender roles, and stereotypes), and heterosexuality. Hostile sexism is defined as an adversarial view of gender relations in which women are viewed negatively, as being competitive and seeking to control men. Benevolent sexism is subjectively positive, rewarding women for conforming to a patriarchal status quo and characterizing them as morally pure, to be protected, and adored (p. 110). Based on the results from administration of the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory to over 15,000 individuals in more than 20 countries, Glick and Fiske state that hostile and benevolent sexism are present around the world and both promote gender inequality (See: Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (2001a). Ambivalent sexism. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental Psychology-Social Psychology (Vol. 33, pp. 115-188). San Diego, CA: Academic Press; Glick, P., Fiske, S. T., Mladinic, A., Saiz, J. L., Abrams, D., Masser, B., et al. (2000). Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Psychology-Social Psychology, 79, 763-775; and Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Psychology-Social Psychology, 70, 491-512.).
Fiske et al’s Stereotype Content Model asserts that the primary definition of prejudice as antipathy or hate is too simplistic. The model suggests that prejudice directed at social groups is subject to the same structural factors that affect female-male relations: relative status of groups and the nature of their interdependence (competitive or cooperative). These two factors would determine the content of stereotypic beliefs, the quality of emotions, and the kind of behaviors in response to out-groups. (See: Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Psychology-Social Psychology, 82, 878-902.).
Social role theory proposes that men and women behave differently in social situations and act in accordance with their social roles, often segregated along gender lines, due to society’s expectations put upon them. In other words, men and women confirm gender stereotypes largely because the different roles that they perform place different social demands upon them. (See: Eagly, A. H., Wood, W., & Diekman, A. B. (2000). Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: A current appraisal. In T. Eckes & H. M. Trautner (Eds.). The developmental Psychology-Social Psychology of gender (pp. 123-174). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.)
Additional Information: Sexism
According to the Health Belief model, health behaviors such as participation in screening and prevention programs is most related to
Select one:
A. societal norms.
B. a combination of genetic and early childhood environment factors.
C. the person’s perceptions about things such as the threat and severity of illness, the likelihood of treatment success, and the barriers to effective treatment.
D. the person’s intelligence level and skill in meeting the demands of daily life.
Correct Answer is: C
The Health Belief Model (HBM) is a psychological model that attempts to explain and predict health behaviors by focusing on the attitudes and beliefs of individuals. According to the model, a variety of perceptions influence health behavior, including perceived risk of contracting a given health condition, perceived severity of that condition, perceived effectiveness of strategies to reduce the threat or illness, and perceived consequences of taking a given health action.
Additional Information: Health Belief Model (HBM)
A person calls into a radio talk show psychic, hears the psychic's reading and says "that is exactly my situation." This is NOT an example of: Select one: A. subjective validation B. functional fixedness C. the Barnum effect D. the Forer effect
Correct Answer is: B
Functional fixedness refers to the tendency to think of objects only in terms of their usual functions.
subjective validation
Subjective validation is the process of validating words, initials, statements or signs as accurate because one is able to find them personally meaningful and significant. The other two response choices are frequently used interchangeably to describe the tendency of people to accept vague and general personality descriptions as uniquely applicable to themselves without realizing that the same description could be applied to just about anyone.
the Barnum effect
Specifically, the Barnum effect is the name given to a type of subjective validation in which a person finds personal meaning in statements that could apply to many people
the Forer effect
The Forer effect refers to the tendency of people to rate such statements as highly accurate for them personally. (See: Dickson, D.H., & Kelly, I.W. (1985) “The ‘Barnum effect’ in personality assessment: A review of the literature,” Psychological Reports, 57, 367-382. and Forer, B.R. (1949) “The fallacy of personal validation: A classroom demonstration of gullibility,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 44, 118-121.)
A tour guide is likely to get the smallest tip from a tour group when the group is large and the tourists contribute to a group tip. This is predicted by: Select one: A. social inhibition theory B. social comparison theory C. social loafing theory D. social exchange theory
Correct Answer is: C
According to social loafing theory, people “loaf” (don’t do their share) when they are participating in a large group and when their contribution, or lack of contribution, will not be detected.
Additional Information: Social Loafing
According to Rutter, the risk patterns that are accurate predictors for child psychopathology are:
Select one:
A. Small family size, parental criminality, marital discord
B. Severe marital discord, low socioeconomic status
C. Large family size, high socioeconomic status, parental psychopathology
D. Low socioeconomic status, small family size
Correct Answer is: B
Again, getting this question correct involves a willingness to read carefully through the answer choices. Rutter listed low socioeconomic status, severe marital discord, large family size, parental criminality, and placement of children outside the home as predictors of child psychopathology.
Additional Information: Risk and Resilience
Several members of a homeowners association are talking at a party when a few express their frustration about new rules and the association's new supervisor. By the end of the party, all the group members agree that the supervisor is difficult and unqualified. This is an example of: Select one: A. negative framing B. social loafing C. social facilitation D. group polarization
Correct Answer is: D
Group polarization is the tendency of individuals who start off with similar views to end up with a more extreme position after group discussion.
Negative framing refers to presenting a problem in negative terms. Social loafing refers to decreased individual productivity that occurs when the size of the work group increases. Social facilitation refers to improved performance on tasks due to the presence of other people.
Additional Information: Group Polarization
According to Weiner's attribution theory, a person with high-self esteem is most likely to attribute success on an achievement-related task to Select one: A. effort. B. ability. C. luck. D. the easiness of the task.
Correct Answer is: B
Weiner’s attribution theory has to do with reasons people use to explain causes of behavior, events, and outcomes. According to Weiner, these explanations or attributions have three dimensions: locus-of control (internal-external), stability (stable-unstable), and controllability (controllable-uncontrollable). This makes for eight possible attribution types: internal-stable-controllable, internal-stable-uncontrollable, and so on. The focus of this theory is on attributions for achievement, and Weiner identified ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck and the most important explanations of achievement. The theory has a number of applications in a variety of settings. For example, students who attribute success to ability, an internal, stable, and uncontrollable factor, are likely to have higher self-esteem. Students who attribute academic successes and failure to effort (an internal, unstable, controllable factor) are more likely to persist at tasks.
According to cognitive dissonance theory:
Select one:
A. we all have a basic need for cognitive dissonance.
B. there is no link between our attitudes and behavior.
C. we are likely to change our attitudes to match our behavior.
D. we are likely to change our behavior to match our attitudes.
Correct Answer is: C
According to dissonance theory, inconsistency between our attitudes and our behavior results in a state of cognitive dissonance, which is an internal aversive state.
we all have a basic need for cognitive dissonance.
there is no link between our attitudes and behavior.
So that eliminates these two answers, leaving two options. Though it seems logical that our attitudes lead to our behaviors, the irony of dissonance research is that it more often finds the opposite – that our inner attitudes are adjusted to match our behaviors.
Additional Information: Cognitive Dissonance Theory
After losing several hundred dollars gambling at the casino, Jack decides to increase the amount he places on each subsequent bet in hopes of making his money back. This decision is best explained by: Select one: A. satisficing. B. loss aversion. C. bounded rationality. D. cognitive dissonance.
Correct Answer is: B
Kahneman and Tversky’s (1979) Prospect Theory contains the notion of loss aversion which refers to the tendency to be influenced more by potential losses than potential gains or to base decisions more heavily on the fear of loss than the hope of gain. In contrast to commonly held beliefs that people are adverse to risk and make decisions based on logic, Kahneman and Tversky found that people are adverse to loss, not risk. This explains why gamblers will take riskier and riskier decisions after suffering a loss in hopes of making their money back, that is, to avoid realizing an actual loss.
Satisficing refers to the decision-making style of using the minimal amount of information to reach a “good enough” solution.
Bounded rationality is part of Herbert Simon’s (administrative) model of decision making, which proposes that decision makers are not always completely rational in making choices. Instead, time and resources limit their consideration of alternatives, so they tend to consider alternatives only until a satisfactory one is identified.
Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that, when we have two conflicting cognitions (e.g., I like the club but they don’t want me” ), we’ll be motivated to reduce the tension that this causes by changing one of our cognitions.
Additional Information: Loss Aversion
The assumption that prejudice and discrimination are outgrowths of the drive to enhance one's own self-esteem is most consistent with the perspective of which theory? Select one: A. social identity theory B. social comparison C. self-perception theory D. self-verification theory
Correct Answer is: A
According to Tajfel (1982), people strive to maintain and enhance their self-esteem, and this is associated with two components: personal and social identity. Social identity theory states that social identity, the aspect of self-esteem based on group membership, is enhanced by believing one’s own group (the ingroup) is attractive and belittling the members of the other groups (the outgroups).
Social comparison theory proposes people self-evaluate by comparing themselves with similar others when objective information is not available.
Self-perception theory proposes when clear internal cues are absent, individuals infer feelings and beliefs by observed behavior or external cues.
Self-verification theory proposes individuals need and seek confirmation of their self-concept, whether the confirmation is positive or negative.
Additional Information: Social Identity Theory
In a rape case, jurors highest in their “belief in a just world” are most likely to:
Select one:
A. wonder what the rape victim was wearing.
B. assume the truth will come out.
C. want to punish the defendant most harshly.
D. try to be most fair in judging the defendant.
Correct Answer is: A
This may be a difficult item until one is clear about the “just world” concept. Those scoring high on the “belief in a just world” scale tend to blame the victim for crimes, out of a need to believe that bad crimes should not occur to good people. Thus, such individuals might wonder if a short skirt or make-up invited the crime. Otherwise, these people are not systematically more prejudiced, punitive, or fair in their judgments.
Research on the relationship between group size and the size of tips in restaurants has lent credence to the construct of diffusion of responsibility in its findings that as group size increases, the average tip per customer
Select one:
A. decreases.
B. increases.
C. decreases only when diners are charged separately.
D. increases only when diners are charged separately.
Correct Answer is: A
Diffusion of responsibility refers to the notion that the presence of others reduces people’s feeling of personal responsibility for events, as individuals tend to shift responsibility to others present. Both laboratory and field studies have shown that the presence of others does in fact reduce individual helping, charitable giving, task effort, and other types of non-mandatory giving behaviors, including restaurant tipping. The results of such studies are often explained as examples of diffusion of responsibility.
The results of the Robber’s Cave experiment (Sherif et al., 1961) indicated that:
Select one:
A. emotional reactions are based upon cognitive interpretations of arousal
B. superordinate goals reduce hostility between groups
C. we prefer to be right rather than happy
D. we tend to seek, interpret, and create information that verifies our existing beliefs
Correct Answer is: B
In Sherif’s Robber’s Cave Study, children in a summer camp were divided into two groups on an arbitrary basis and made to engage in competition with each other. This engendered intergroup hostility and dislike, which was found to be greatly reduced when a task requiring the two groups to cooperate (on superordinate goals) was introduced.
emotional reactions are based upon cognitive interpretations of arousal
This choice represents Schachter’s two-factor theory of emotion.
we prefer to be right rather than happy
This is a conclusion of Self Verification Theory.
we tend to seek, interpret, and create information that verifies our existing beliefs
And this exemplifies the confirmatory bias.
Additional Information: Robbers Cave Study
You see an African-American client who tells you that he can’t get anywhere in life due to racism, but then tells you “I get what I deserve.” Based on this information, the client has a world view of
Select one:
A. external locus of control, internal locus of responsibility.
B. external locus of control, external locus of responsibility.
C. internal locus of control, internal locus of responsibility.
D. internal locus of control, external locus of responsibility.
Correct Answer is: A
J.B. Rotter identified internal-external locus of control as a personality trait of attributional tendency. People with an internal locus of control tend to view positive and negative outcomes as the result of their own actions; i.e., they believe they have control over their own fate. Those with an external locus of control view outside forces, such as luck, powerful external entities, or societal injustices, as in control over what happens to them. Derald Wing Sue identified locus of responsibility as an additional attributional tendency. People with an internal locus of responsibility credit or blame themselves for what happens to them; those with an external locus of responsibility place credit or blame with others. According to Sue, one’s worldview can fall into one of four quadrants, based on different combinations of locus of control and locus of responsibility. Sue noted that the internal locus of control/internal locus of responsibility (IC-IR) is the world view considered normal and healthy in the dominant culture, but that this is not necessarily the case in minority cultures. In this question, the person sees the external force of racism as in control of his outcomes, yet he still apparently blames himself for what happens to him. Therefore, the best answer is that his worldview is external locus of control/internal locus of responsibility. Sue points out that this is the typical world view of “self-hating” minority group members; these are people who are marginalized by the dominant culture and attempt to fit in with both the dominant and the ethnic culture but fail to do so in both cases.
Additional Information: Worldview
Based on Schachter’s work, one would treat a client with an obesity problem by:
Select one:
A. manipulating the external cues.
B. changing the client’s self-attributions.
C. changing the social reinforcers for food consumption.
D. manipulating the internal cues.
Correct Answer is: A
The question relates to Schachter’s classic research on obesity showing that obese people rely more on external than internal cues in their eating behaviors.
According to the Health Belief Model, the likelihood that a person will take steps to reduce the risk of contracting the HIV virus is related to
Select one:
A. the person’s perceived risk of contracting the virus.
B. the availability of information about the causes and consequences of AIDS.
C. the person’s perceived ability to control his impulses.
D. personality variables such as extraversion and conscientiousness.
Correct Answer is: A
The Health Belief Model (HBM) outlines the factors that influence the likelihood that a person will engage in health-related behaviors. According to the HBM, a person’s readiness to take action depends on how serious he believes a condition is and, as stated by the correct choice (“the person’s perceived risk of contracting the virus”), the degree to which he feels vulnerable to the disease. Once ready to take action, a person weighs the costs vs. the benefits of action and will not proceed unless the benefits outweigh the costs. Finally, there must be a cue to action, such as a symptom or an environmental occurrence that brings information about the condition to the person’s attention. Research applying this model to high-risk HIV behavior has supported a number of elements of this theory. For instance, in high-risk populations especially, perceived vulnerability is a major factor influencing prevention behavior.
Additional Information: Health Belief Model (HBM)
Research on gender differences in judgments of sexual harassment indicate:
Select one:
A. men and women are equally as likely to judge a sexually-toned behavior as sexual harassment regardless of the severity of the behaviors.
B. men and women are equally as likely to judge a sexually-toned behavior as sexual harassment but only in severe cases.
C. men are more likely than women to judge a sexually-toned behavior as sexual harassment but only in severe cases.
D. women are more likely than men to judge a sexually-toned behavior as sexual harassment regardless of the severity of the behaviors.
Correct Answer is: B
Sexual harassment research has consistently found that males and females are equally as likely to judge a sexually-toned behavior as sexual harassment in severe cases; however, there are significant gender differences in judgments in mild to moderate cases of harassment. Studies have continually found females are more likely than males to rate mild to moderately severe or sexually-ambiguous behaviors as constituting sexual harassment. (See: C. W. Williams et al., An attributional (causal dimensional) analysis of perceptions of sexual harassment, Journal of Applied Psychology-Social Psychology, 1995, 25, 1169-1183.)
Xandria’s idea on how to solve a problem is at odds with how members of her team want to proceed. Research on minority influence suggests that Xandria will be most successful in convincing her fellow team members to see things her way if she:
Select one:
A. first agrees with their position and than gradually introduces her solution.
B. introduces her solution and then firmly sticks to it.
C. uses ingratiation to win the group leader over to her side.
D. cashes in her “idiosyncracy credits.”
Correct Answer is: B
Although there is probably more than one way for Xandria to get her way, research on minority influence has found that firm, consistent commitment to a position is the best way to change the opinion of the majority.
Additional Information: Factors that Affect Conformity to a Minority
Studies on persuasive communication suggest that, when there is a large difference in opinion between the communicator and the audience of the message, change in the latter’s opinion is
Select one:
A. practically impossible.
B. more likely if the communicator is perceived as attractive.
C. more likely if message recipients perceive the communicator as similar to them.
D. more likely if the communicator is perceived as credible.
Correct Answer is: D
Studies have suggested that, when there is a large difference in initial opinion between the originator and the receiver of persuasive communication, attitude change in the latter is most likely when the former is perceived as credible. Factors that increase a communicator’s credibility include perceived competence or expertise (e.g., when the speaker is presented as being very accomplished in a field) and trustworthiness (e.g., when the communicator is not perceived to have a personal interest in getting the audience to agree with her).
Additional Information: Communicator Credibility
You are commuting to work early in the morning at 15 mph over the speed limit. You glance in your rearview mirror and notice blue flashing lights. You slow down and pull over. According to French and Raven's ideas about social power, which type of power are you attributing to the policemen? Select one: A. legitimate B. reward C. informational D. referent
Correct Answer is: A
According to French and Raven (1959), in the case of legitimate authority, the target believes the influencing agent has legitimate authority.
With reward power, the influencing agent has control over valued rewards and resources. And, what you are about to receive from the policeman will not be a reward. With informational power, the influencing agent possesses specific information needed by the target person, and with referent power, the target identifies with or likes the influencing agent ( incorrect options).
Additional Information: Bases of Social Power
The tendency of sports teams to win more often when they are playing on their home court is referred to as the "home advantage." This phenomenon is best explained by: Select one: A. home court familiarity B. expectations of the players C. social support from fans D. demoralization of the visiting team
Correct Answer is: C
The home advantage in team sports has generated various explanations; however, it most consistently has been linked to a supportive home audience. (See: B. Schwartz and S. F. Barsky, The home advantage, Social Forces, 1977, 55, 641-661; and K. S. Courneya and A. V. Carron, The home advantage in sports competitions: A literature review, Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 1992, 14, 13-27.)
The tendency to make dispositional attributions to an entire group of people is referred to as: Select one: A. self-serving bias B. fundamental attribution error C. ultimate attribution error D. actor-observer effect
Correct Answer is: C
The ultimate attribution error refers to attributional biases that occur at the group level. The tendency to assume that whole groups of people have similar dispositions may be based on stereotypes or limited evidence and occur to protect a group in which one belongs.
Self-serving bias is the tendency to take credit for our successes and to blame situational factors for our failures.
Fundamental attribution error is the tendency to explain others’ behavior in terms of internal disposition, (e.g., personality traits, abilities, motives, etc.) as opposed to external situational factors. This bias occurs when situational factors are underestimated and dispositional factors are overestimated in understanding the behavior of others.
The actor-observer effect is the tendency to overestimate situational factors and underestimate dispositional factors regarding one’s own behaviors and to underestimate situational factors and overestimate dispositional factors in others.
Sherif's social judgment theory suggests an individual is most likely to be persuaded when a message is within his/her: Select one: A. latitude of rejection B. latitude of acceptance C. level of self-monitoring D. categories of judgment
Correct Answer is: B
Sherif’s social judgment theory posits people evaluate persuasive messages through three categories of judgment - latitude of acceptance, latitude of non-commitment, and latitude of rejection. and is most likely to be persuaded when a message is within his/her “latitude of acceptance.”
Additional Information: Social Judgment Theory
According the Social Exchange Theory of attraction, whether or not a person is attracted to another person depends mostly on
Select one:
A. the person’s similarity to the other person in background.
B. the perceived costs and benefits of the relationship.
C. the person’s similarity to the other person in physical attractiveness.
D. whether or not the other person likes the person.
Correct Answer is: B
According to Social Exchange Theory, the level of satisfaction from and attraction to a particular relationship with another person derives from the perceived costs and benefits of the relationship. People seek relationships where their personal and social costs are minimal and their rewards and benefits are maximized. In analyzing these costs and benefits, people consider the outcomes available from a current relationship, or one currently under consideration, and compare those outcomes to those that can be obtained from an alternative relationship. The theory assumes that people accurately and rationally perceive the costs and benefits of current relationships and their alternatives, though research has suggested that this often is not the case.
Additional Information: Maintenance of Romantic Relationships
The idea that violence on television is a cause of violence in the real world is most supported by
Select one:
A. Pavlov’s classical conditioning theory.
B. Tolman’s latent learning theory.
C. Bandura’s social learning theory.
D. Vygotsky’s constructivism theory.
Correct Answer is: C
Bandura’s social learning holds that direct external reinforcement of behavior cannot account for all learning. He proposed, for instance, that some behavior is intrinsically reinforcing, and also that some learning can occur through imitation of other people. Because his theory deals with the imitation of models, it provides more support than other theories for the idea that watching violence on television leads to violent behavior. It should be noted that this is not a necessary outcome according to Bandura, as he identifies four requirements–attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation–that must be present for a behavior to be imitated. In other words, not all observed behaviors are imitated, but because Bandura’s theory deals directly with the imitation of models, it is the best answer to this question.
Additional Information: Social Learning Theory
After viewing sexually explicit films, men are more likely to do all of the following except:
Select one:
A. recommend more severe prison sentences for convicted rapists
B. rape, when the films depict sexual coercion by a man over a woman and if the viewer was sure they would not get caught.
C. rate their sexual partners as less attractive
D. interpret a woman’s friendliness as a sexual gesture.
Correct Answer is: A
Viewing sexually explicit films, particularly those which depict violence against women, has been shown to have several negative effects on men. They are more likely to rate their sexual partners as less attractive and to interpret a woman’s friendliness as a sexual gesture. If the film they viewed depicted a man sexually overpowering a woman, the men subsequently reported a greater likelihood of committing rape as long as they were sure they would not get caught. Contrary to this choice (recommend more severe prison sentences for convicted rapists ), the men were more likely to recommend a more lenient prison sentence for convicted rapists. [R. J. Harris, The impact of sexually explicit media, in J. Brant and D. Zillman (eds.), Media Effects: Advances in theory and Research, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1994].
Additional Information: Social Learning Theory
Jane describes her friend Mike to her other friend Mary, as "intelligent, hard-working, stubborn, and critical." A week later Mary is most likely to remember Mike as: Select one: A. intelligent B. hard-working C. stubborn D. critical
Correct Answer is: A
Research has found that people are more likely to recall the first item (primacy effect) and the last item (recency effect) in a series of presented items. The relative magnitude of these two effects varies depending on the length of the time interval. Within the first few seconds after presentation of a series of items, the recency effect is more powerful. However, for longer intervals, the primacy effect has been shown to be stronger (A. Knoedler, K. Hellwig, & I. Neath, The shift from recency to primacy with increasing delay. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 1999, 25(2), 474-487).
Additional Information: Primacy and Recency Effects
The tendency to be easily provoked by others, to have difficulty controlling impulses, and to react aggressively when interacting with others is referred to as: Select one: A. hostile attribution bias B. passive aggression C. reactive aggression D. proactive aggression
Correct Answer is: C
Relational aggression is described as any behavior that is intended to harm someone by damaging or manipulating relationships with others (Crick, 1995). The two types of relational aggression are proactive and reactive.
Proactive relational aggression is when behaviors are a means for achieving a goal, such as excluding someone from a group in order to maintain one’s own social status. Reactive relational aggression is behavior that is in response to provocation, with the intent to retaliate. Some of the manifestations of relational aggression include: ignoring, teasing, exclusion, insults, malicious gossip and rumor spreading, intimidation, alliance building, withdrawing affection and cyberbullying. The motivation for relational aggression is varied, however, often includes: power, control, fear, popularity and/or security.
Hostile attribution bias is the tendency to believe that others are trying to cause harm even in neutral or unclear situations. Research indicates hostile attribution bias may be due to deficits in social information processing. Findings show children with peer relationship difficulties are less accurate in interpreting the intentions of other children and are more likely to attribute hostile intent to neutral or ambiguous peer behavior (de Castro et al., 2002). Likewise, studies of aggressive children indicate they are more likely than nonaggressive children to interpret the ambiguous behaviors of peers as intentionally hostile and, therefore, to react to those peers with aggressive, hostile behaviors. (See: Crick, N. R. (1995). Relational aggression: The role of intent attributions, provocation type, and feelings of distress. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 313-322; de Castro, B. O., Veerman, J. W., Koops, W., Bosch, J. D. & Monshouwer, H. J. (2002) Hostile attribution of intent and aggressive behavior: a meta-analysis. Child Development, 73, 916-934.)
Decisions made by a group are typically better than those made individually when:
Select one:
A. the group is highly cohesive
B. the group leader is directive
C. the task requires a high degree of creativity
D. members of the group have complementary skills
Correct Answer is: D
One of the major obstacles to good group decision-making is groupthink. Groupthink is an intensive tendency to seek agreement among members of the group, which prevents full consideration of alternative decisions, to the point where the decisions reached may become irrational. Some of the factors which contribute to groupthink include: high group cohesiveness, homogeneous backgrounds and values, and a strong, directive leader. A group consisting of members with complementary skills is not homogeneous, and would be less likely to succumb to groupthink.
the task requires a high degree of creativity
Contrary to this choice, tasks which require a high degree of creativity tend to be performed better by individuals than groups.
Additional Information: Groupthink
According to Social Judgment Theory, persuasion occurs when all of the following happen EXCEPT:
Select one:
A. the new information is judged to fall in the latitude of acceptance
B. the new information is an ego-involved issue
C. the new information is different from the anchor position
D. the new information, while discrepant from the anchor, isn’t assimilated or contrasted
Correct Answer is: B
According to Social Judgment Theory, a person categorizes new information or positions into one of three zones or latitudes: latitude of acceptance, latitude of non-commitment, and latitude of rejection. The latitude of acceptance contains all the positions on a particular topic that a person finds acceptable. Within this latitude is the “anchor” which is the single position that a person finds the most acceptable.
The latitude of non-commitment contains the positions that are neutral for the person.
The latitude of rejection contains all the positions on an issue that a person rejects. The theory claims persuasion is a difficult process and cannot occur in circumstances such as: new information is judged to fall within the latitude of rejection; a person is ego-involved (correct answer) in the issue causing the latitude of rejection to be larger than usual and making persuasion even more difficult; and, when people tend to distort new information through assimilation and contrast diluting the persuasive potential of new information. When distortions like this occur, no persuasion will result if the new information falls within the latitude of acceptance and is close to the anchor position as the person will “assimilate” or pull the new position closer and make it seem like it is already accepted or more acceptable than it really is. However, if the new position is out of the latitude of acceptance, then a person will “contrast” or push the information farther away to the latitude of rejection and make it seem worse than it really is.
Additional Information: Social Judgment Theory
When men and women are asked to judge photos of women’s faces:
Select one:
A. attractive women are viewed as less intelligent.
B. there is no relation between ratings of beauty and personality.
C. unattractive women are rated as having less positive personalities.
D. women and men disagree on standards of facial beauty.
Correct Answer is: C
Researchers find a consistently moderate positive correlation between ratings of facial beauty and ratings of personality and intelligence, regardless of whether the faces are female or male. This is an example of the halo effect. In other words, attractive people are rated as having better personalities and unattractive people are rated less positively.
Additional Information: Halo Effect
A group member has idiosyncratic credits. This refers to the idea that the member has: Select one: A. Upward mobility B. Brownie points C. Unusual behaviors D. Referent power
Correct Answer is: B
Idiosyncratic credits are related to minority influence. Hollander (1985) found that in order to become either the leader of a group or successfully challenge the majority opinion of a group, a person must first conform to the group in order to establish his or her credentials as a “competent insider”. By becoming accepted, member’s idiosyncracy credits are accumulated, which are like “brownie points”.
Additional Information: Factors that Affect Conformity to a Minority
Which of the following methods of reducing inter-group conflict and hostility is most likely to be successful?
Select one:
A. increasing contact between groups.
B. disseminating accurate information about members of the outgroup.
C. introduction of a superordinate goal.
D. having leaders of the conflicting groups meet and negotiate.
Correct Answer is: C
Sherif and Sherif, in their “Robber’s Cave” studies, divided 11-year-old boys into two groups that were pitted against each other in a series of competitions. Hostility between the two groups developed rapidly, with members of each group developing negative stereotypes of the other. Sherif tested a number of ways to reduce this inter-group conflict, and found that the only effective method was introducing a common goal that required the two groups to work together. Later research has clarified this finding: for groups that have not worked together cooperatively in the past, superordinate goals are only effective in reducing inter-group hostility when the goals are successfully achieved, each group has a distinctive role to play in achieving the goal, and group members feel that both groups contributed in a clearly defined way.
Additional Information: Robbers Cave Study
According to the recent U.S. Department of Justice's National Violence Against Women Study, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ females have the lowest lifetime rate of victimization by an intimate partner. Select one: A. Asian American B. American Indians/Alaska Natives C. African American D. White American
Correct Answer is: A
Investigators P. Tjaden and N. Thoennes report in Extent, nature and consequences of intimate partner violence: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Study (July 2000) that Asian/Pacific Islander women reported significantly less intimate partner violence than women of other racial backgrounds with a lifetime victimization rate of 15%. It has been suggested that traditional Asian values emphasizing close family ties and harmony may discourage Asian women from disclosing physical and emotional abuse by intimates. Therefore, the lower rates may be partially due to under-reporting.
American Indians/Alaska Native women* report the highest rates of intimate partner victimization with a lifetime rate of 37.5%. African American females* report a rate of 29.1% and White females, 24.8% ( incorrect options). It is unclear how much of the difference between victimization rates among women of differing racial backgrounds may be explained by differences in willingness to report; by demographic, social, and environmental factors; and how much by actual victimization experiences.
A sports psychologist suggests the most important factor in understanding the relationship of intensity to athletic performance is the individual athlete’s own interpretation of his or her perceived intensity. This explanation is based on:
Select one:
A. Inverted-U Theory
B. Individual Zones of Optimal Function (IZOF) Model
C. Catastrophe Model
D. Reversal Theory
Correct Answer is: D
There are four current theoretical explanations for the relationship between intensity (i.e., anxiety, arousal, nervousness) and athletic performance: Inverted-U Hypothesis (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908); Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning Model (Hanin, 1986); Catastrophe theory (Hardy & Fazey, 1987), and Reversal theory (Kerr, 1987).
The Inverted-U theory* is the most popular explanation of the relationship of intensity and athletic performance and is often referred to as the Yerkes-Dodson Law. It purports moderate intensity is optimal for all athletes, theorizing as intensity increases from low to moderate levels there is an associated improvement in performance and performance worsens once intensity levels either exceed or fall below this moderate range.
The Individual Zones of Optimal Function (IZOF) model*, proposes that the optimal level of intensity may vary, ranging from very low to very high for different individuals, and that a multitude of inter-individual differences exist across athletes and sport settings.
Catastrophe theory, suggests that physiological arousal is dependent upon the level of cognitive intensity of the individual athlete and that cognitive, somatic and self-confidence aspects exert an interactive three-dimensional influence on performance ( incorrect options).
Reversal theory states how an athlete interprets his or her own intensity levels, whether as positive or negative, influences performance. The theory also suggests for successful performances to occur, athletes must view their own intensity level as positive and that perceptions of intensity are dynamic and constantly changing throughout the course performance. (See: Taylor, J., & Wilson, G.S. (2002). Intensity regulation and sport performance. In J. Van Raalte & B. Brewer (Eds.) Exploring Sport and Exercise Psychology (2nd ed.) (pp. 99-130). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.)
The theory that we engage in prosocial behavior to relieve our own state of emotional distress at another's plight is referred to as: Select one: A. cognitive-appraisal theory B. instrumentality C. negative state relief theory D. opponent-process theory
Correct Answer is: C
Negative state relief theory states we engage in prosocial behavior to relieve our own state of emotional distress at another’s plight.
Cognitive-appraisal theory states that one’s emotion at a given time depends on one’s interpretation of the situation one is in.
Instrumentality refers to the extent to which an individual believes that attaining a particular outcome will lead to other positively valued outcomes.
Opponent-process theory of emotion proposes that the brain avoids extremes of emotional experience by counteracting a strong positive or negative emotion with an opposite or opponent emotional response. Opponent processes have been shown to be associated with characteristic changes in affective experience that occur over time, and the dynamics of affective response to such stimuli as horror movies, skydiving and addiction. (See: Solomon, R.L. 1980. The opponent-process theory of acquired motivation: The costs of pleasure and the benefits of pain. American Psychologist 35:691-712.).
The term “group polarization” refers to the tendency of groups to make decisions that are
Select one:
A. more risky than those that might be made by individual members.
B. more conservative than those that might be made by individual members.
C. more risky or more conservative than those that might be made by individual members.
D. more illogical than those that might be made by individual members.
Correct Answer is: C
A group’s decisions tend to be more extreme (in one direction or the other) than those that would be made by individuals in the group acting alone. This phenomenon is referred to as group polarization. One explanation for group polarization is that group members are more willing to support extreme decisions because, as group members, they won’t have to take as much personal responsibility for their decisions as they would if they were acting alone.
Additional Information: Group Polarization
When a person misremembers seeing an event personally when it was actually seen on television, this is an example of: Select one: A. source confusion B. blocking C. false recall D. cryptomnesia
Correct Answer is: A
One of Schacter’s (1999) Seven Sins of Memory, misattribution is divided into source confusion, cryptomnesia and false recall/false recognition. This question is an example of source confusion, in which is a type of misattribution is in regard to the source of a memory.
Cryptomnesia is a form of misattribution where a memory is mistaken for imagination, because there is no subjective experience of it being a memory.
Schacter also proposed the “tip of the tongue” phenomenon, in which a person is able to recall parts of an item, or related information, but is frustratingly unable to recall the whole item. This is thought to be an instance of “blocking” where multiple similar memories are being recalled and interfere with each other. (See: Schacter, D. L. (1999). “The Seven Sins of Memory: Insights From Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience” American Psychologist Vol. 54. No. 3, 182-203; Schacter, D. L., J. Y. Chiao, J. P. Mitchell. (2003). “The Seven Sins of Memory. Implications for Self” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1001 (1), 226-239.)
Which of the following statements is most consistent with Lewin’s field theory?
Select one:
A. As a person moves towards one of the goals in an approach-approach conflict, it becomes less attractive and the other goal becomes more attractive.
B. Leadership is a function of the relationship between a task and the environment.
C. Behavior is a function of the relationship between the person and the environment.
D. A person’s “life space” is equivalent to Jung’s notion of the collective unconscious.
Correct Answer is: C
According the Lewin’s field theory, behavior is a function of the relationship between a person and his or her environment. Lewin used the following formula to express this relationship: B = f(P,E) where B is behavior, P is the person, and E is the environment.
As a person moves towards one of the goals in an approach-approach conflict, it becomes less attractive and the other goal becomes more attractive.
This choice is the opposite of Lewin’s prediction. That is, when faced with an approach-approach conflict, the selected choice becomes more attractive while the other choice becomes less attractive.
A person’s “life space” is equivalent to Jung’s notion of the collective unconscious.
“Life space” is also a central concept in field theory but refers to everything in a person’s psychological environment - not the collective unconscious.
Additional Information: Lewin’s Field Theory
Allport (1954) proposed the most effective way of reducing prejudice and discrimination is by intergroup contact presuming certain conditions are met. Which of the following is not one of the conditions? Select one: A. frequent intergroup contact B. equal status between groups C. social and institutional support D. empathy toward the other group
Correct Answer is: D
According to Allport, intergroup contact for reducing prejudice is only likely to be beneficial when intergroup contact is both frequent (“frequent intergroup contact”) and of a duration that allows meaningful relationships to develop; the two groups have equal status (“equal status between groups “); the two groups are working towards common goals based on co-operation and social and institutional support is given. Allport notes that if these conditions are not met, contact may actually increase prejudice.
Additional Information: Contact Hypothesis
Performance generally:
Select one:
A. decreases in the presence of others if the desired behavior is not well-learned.
B. increases in the presence of others if the desired behavior is not well-learned.
C. decreases in the presence of others if the desired behavior is well-learned.
D. remains unchanged in the presence of others.
Correct Answer is: A
Social facilitation can explain the apparently contradictory results between subjects whose performance increases in the presence of others versus those whose performance decreases. The theory is as follows: The presence of others will increase motivation; therefore, if the behavior is well-learned, increased motivation will lead to increased performance. If the behavior is not well-learned, however, the presence of others will lead to heightened arousal, which will interfere with the person’s ability to concentrate on the task at hand.
Additional Information: Social Facilitation and Social Inhibition
An aggressive child was probably
Select one:
A. Spanked often and inconsistently
B. Never given proper boundaries
C. Spanked for specific naughty behaviors
D. Encouraged to think about the end results of her behaviors
Correct Answer is: A
According to Jerry Patterson and his colleagues, aggressive behavior often develops from the parent’s style of parenting; an aggressive child’s parent used lots of directives combined with inconsistent harsh physical punishment.
Additional Information: Origins of Aggression
If a speaker with moderate to low credibility presents a well-stated argument in favor of a particular position, he can expect the greatest attitude change
Select one:
A. if the audience is very ego-involved in the issue.
B. if there is a large degree of discrepancy between his position and that of the audience.
C. if his argument arouses a great deal of fear.
D. as time passes.
Correct Answer is: D
The effectiveness of persuasive communication depends on numerous factors. One important factor is the credibility of the communicator. Individuals who are perceived as trustworthy and possessing expertise are credible, and such communicators can induce attitude change in an audience even when there is a large discrepancy between the audience’s initial position and the communicator’s argument. However, research shows that the effectiveness of well-presented communication from a source low in credibility tends to increase over time, because people tend to remember the message but forget the source. This phenomenon is known as the “sleeper effect”.
The other choices all present factors likely to decrease the effectiveness of an argument from a source low in credibility. Message recipients who are very ego-involved in a particular issue are less-likely to change their opinion about that issue than those who are less ego-involved. And as noted already, individuals who are low in credibility are unlikely to induce opinion change when there is a large discrepancy between the communicator’s and the audience’s position. Finally, messages that arouse a moderate amount of fear are associated with greater attitude change than messages than induce very little or very high fear.
Additional Information: Communicator Credibility
The most important factor found to exist as a criterion for initial attraction between people who have just met is: Select one: A. attitude similarity. B. physical attractiveness. C. physical proximity. D. all of the above.
Correct Answer is: B
When we become attracted to someone we meet for the first time, it is most likely because of physical characteristics. Attraction due to other factors, such as intelligence, compatibility, etc., comes later.
Additional Information: Attraction
If you hear arguments against your opinion, followed by arguments against the opposing opinion, what is likely to happen?
Select one:
A. You will become very confused.
B. You will become more dogmatic in your original opinion.
C. You will change your opinion.
D. Your resistance to future opposing arguments will be increased.
Correct Answer is: D
This question is indirectly referencing McGuire’s inoculation theory, which proposes that a particular attitude or belief can be strengthened by exposing someone to the opposing belief – especially when the opposing argument is weak or the person is supplied with counter-arguments against the opposing belief. Note that this is analogous to medical inoculation, which involves injection of a weak form of a germ so the body can build up defenses against that germ.
Additional Information: Inoculation Theory
A person making a “fundamental attribution error” would:
Select one:
A. overestimate the impact of the situation and underestimate dispositional factors in interpreting the behavior of others.
B. overrestimate the impact of the situation and underestimate dispositional factors in interpreting one’s own behavior.
C. overestimate the impact of the situation and underestimate dispositional factors in interpreting one’s own failures and underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate dispositional factors in interpreting one’s own successes.
D. underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate dispositional factors in interpreting the behavior of others.
Correct Answer is: D
You need to be able to differentiate between the different types of attributional errors. The fundamental attribution error or bias only refers to interpretations of others’ behaviors. It occurs when we underestimate situational factors and overestimate dispositional factors in understanding the behavior of others. For example, if we see someone trip and assume it’s because they’re clumsy.
overrestimate the impact of the situation and underestimate dispositional factors in interpreting one’s own behavior.
This describes the actor-observer effect.
overestimate the impact of the situation and underestimate dispositional factors in interpreting one’s own failures and underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate dispositional factors in interpreting one’s own successes.
This describes the self-serving bias.
Additional Information: Fundamental Attribution Error
