4- Developmental Psychology Flashcards
Research on bilingualism in children has suggested that
Select one:
A. bilingual children are more likely to display cognitive and learning difficulties than monolingual children.
B. on the average, bilingual and monolingual children do not display any differences in cognitive functioning.
C. bilingual children tend to display greater cognitive flexibility than their monolingual counterparts.
D. the cognitive functioning of bilingual children is related to the degree of difference in the languages they know.
Correct Answer is: C
Cognitive flexibility involves the ability to simultaneously reason about or conceptualize two or more abstract representations. Linguistic competence is correlated with cognitive flexibility, and studies have demonstrated that bilingual children tend to outperform monolingual children on tasks requiring such flexibility. For example, in one study, bilingual children performed better on a task that required them to sort cards on one dimension and then again on a different dimension. The study suggested that this result was due to the bilingual children’s superior ability to inhibit attention to previous mental representations. Another study showed that bilingual children were better able to switch between different possible interpretations of ambiguous figures.
Additional Information: Bilingualism
A 4-year-old girl cries when her teddy bear falls down the stairs. This is an example of: Select one: A. animism B. egocentrism C. magical thinking D. childhood schizophrenia
Correct Answer is: A
Animism is the belief that inanimate objects have thoughts, feelings, and other lifelike qualities.
Egocentrism* refers to thinking, observing, and judging things in relation to the self. Magical thinking, which is based on egocentrism, is the erroneous belief that one has control over objects or events. All of the above traits are normal in a preoperational child and do not indicate Schizophrenia (* incorrect options).
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development focuses on moral reasoning. With regard to the linkage between moral reasoning and moral action, Kohlberg would most likely agree with which of the following?
Select one:
A. There is a direct, one-to-one link between moral reasoning and behavior.
B. The link between moral reasoning and behavior is mediated by the individual’s previous experience with the situation.
C. The link between moral reasoning and behavior is mediated by the individual’s IQ.
D. There isn’t a one-to-one correspondence between moral reasoning and behavior, although, the higher the stage of moral reasoning, the stronger the link is likely to be.
Correct Answer is: D
Kohlberg believed there is a link between moral reasoning and moral action but felt that the correspondence was greatest at the higher stages of moral reasoning.
Additional Information: Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Erikson proposed that psychosocial development continues throughout the lifespan. Successful resolution of the conflict of the final stage of development results in:
Select one:
A. formation of intimate relationships.
B. participation in activities that promote the welfare of future generations.
C. development of mature ego defenses.
D. development of a sense of meaning.
Correct Answer is: D
The final stage in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs in late adulthood and involves a conflict between integrity and despair. Successful resolution occurs when the individual gains “wisdom” and finds meaning in life.
Additional Information: Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
Severe maternal malnutrition during the third trimester is correlated with a number of intellectual, social, and motor deficits in children. Which of the following statements regarding the physiological correlates of these deficits is most true?
Select one:
A. Maternal malnutrition in the third trimester is most likely to result in incomplete development of the autonomic nervous system.
B. Maternal malnutrition in the third trimester seems to have its most severe negative impact on the developing brain.
C. Maternal malnutrition in the third trimester is most likely to cause physical disabilities that prevent the child from developing at a normal rate.
D. Maternal malnutrition in the third trimester is not likely to have a significant physiological effect on the developing fetus; observed deficits in these children are probably due to social and environmental causes.
Correct Answer is: B
Severe prenatal malnutrition is likely to have differential effects, depending on when in pregnancy it occurs. In the first trimester, it can result in congenital malformations and spontaneous abortion. In the third trimester (as well as in the first 3-6 months after birth), it is most likely to have a negative effect on the central nervous system – specifically, the brain. Studies have suggested that these children often have an abnormally low number of brain cells and brain weight. The specific behavioral consequences may include apathy, unresponsiveness to environmental stimulation, irritability, an abnormally high-pitched cry, intellectual deficits, and lags in motor development.
Additional Information: Prenatal Malnutrition
Normal aging is least likely to negatively affect: Select one: A. free recall B. cued recall C. working memory D. picture recognition
Correct Answer is: D
You may have recalled that free recall is more affected by age than cued recall; however, picture recognition is the least demanding cognitive process of all of the choices, and is, therefore, the least affected by aging. [See D.C. Park, Mediators of long-term memory performance across the lifespan, Psychology and Aging, 1996, 11(4), 621-637].
Additional Information: Memory in Adulthood
Kohlberg would agree with all of the following except:
Select one:
A. moral development is an outgrowth of cognitive development.
B. each stage of development represents an organized whole.
C. stage 5 and 6 are not reached by most people.
D. moral development stages have an inherent male bias.
Correct Answer is: D
The first three answers are descriptions of Kohlberg’s theory.
The correct answer is Carol Gilligan’s criticism of Kohlberg. Gilligan thought males are likely to refer to principles of justice and fairness when making decisions, while females are more likely to refer to interpersonal connectedness and care. Research has not generally supported Gilligan’s hypothesis.
Additional Information: Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
When a mother leaves her 12-month old child with a stranger, the child becomes very upset, yet, ignores her when she returns. What type of attachment pattern does this indicate? Select one: A. secure B. avoidant C. resistant D. disoriented
Correct Answer is: C
Babies who have a “resistant” attachment pattern are anxious in the presence of their mother and become more upset when she leaves. They are also ambivalent when she returns and may resist her attempts at physical contact.
Babies with an “avoidant” attachment pattern may also avoid contact with their mother when she returns, but will show little distress when she leaves. Babies with a “disoriented” pattern alternate between the avoidant and resistant patterns and are apprehensive and confused.
Additional Information: Attachment Patterns
According to Kagan’s research on the effects of day care centers, one can say that:
Select one:
A. cognitive abilities decrease for children placed in day care centers over a period of time compared to those who remain at home under their mother’s care.
B. both cognitive abilities and adaptive functioning decrease for children placed in day care centers over a period of time compared to those who remain at home under their mother’s care.
C. cognitive abilities, adaptive functioning, and perceptual motor abilities decrease for children placed in day care centers over a period of time compared to those who remain at home under their mother’s care.
D. there is no adverse effect of placing children over a period of time in day care centers on their cognitive abilities, adaptive functioning, or perceptual motor abilities compared to those who remain at home under their mother’s care.
Correct Answer is: D
Kagan’s ambitious study in Boston indicated that proper day care placement resulted in children’s development that was indistinguishable from the development of children raised at home. This suggests that there are no adverse effects of appropriate day care placement, which is the generally accepted conclusion of experts in the area these days.
Additional Information: Daycare
According to the research findings of Patterson and his colleagues, parents of aggressive children typically use discipline which is:
Select one:
A. consistent, but accompanied by humiliating verbal messages
B. consistent, but often followed by affection which sends mixed messages to the child
C. inconsistent, and often not associated with the child’s behavior
D. inconsistent, but which particularly ignores the child’s aggressive behaviors
Correct Answer is: C
Patterson found that parents of aggressive children often use harsh physical punishment which is applied inconsistently and often not connected to the child’s behavior.
inconsistent, but which particularly ignores the child’s aggressive behaviors
Contrary to this choice, these parents tend to reinforce aggressive behavior in their children with attention or approval.
Additional Information: Origins of Aggression
From approximately 12 to 18 months of age, each word a child produces constitutes a sentence all by itself. This is called: Select one: A. overextension B. idiolect C. holophrastic D. telegraphic
Correct Answer is: C
Children between 12 to 18 months use one word sentences or holophrastic speech. Holophrastic speech refers to the use of a single word to convey an entire idea or sentence. Most children can produce 3-4 words and understand between 30-40 words by 12 months of age. This increases to 50-100 words being understood by 14 months, with even the slowest 25% knowing 20-50. By 18 months, many children produce 25-50 words and understand hundreds. Between 18 to 24 months (approximately), children begin using two word sentences and telegraphic speech.
Telegraphic speech refers to the use of two words to convey an idea or sentence (e.g., see doggy, big ball, more cookie). Idiolects are unique words, sometimes actually invented by the child. Overextension occurs when a child uses a specific word to mean something more general, such as the word hat meaning anything put on the head or doggie for any animal.
Additional Information: Sequence of Language Development
According to research on parenting styles, which of the following describes the parents who are most likely to raise very aggressive children?
Select one:
A. attentive parents who are very controlling of their children’s behavior
B. parents who use frequent and intermittent violence and are very controlling of their children’s behavior
C. loving parents with a laissez-faire attitude toward their children’s behavior
D. parents who use frequent and intermittent violence and have a laissez-faire attitude toward their children’s behavior
Correct Answer is: D
Researchers in the 1950s identified two dimensions of parenting styles: permissiveness and affection. Permissiveness is a continuum that ranges from autonomy on one extreme to control at the other; affection is a continuum that ranges from hostility to love. Parents who combine hostility with autonomy (e.g., those who combine violent discipline with a laissez-faire attitude toward their children) are likely to produce disobedient and aggressive children.
Additional Information: Parental Influences on Personality
Anger management training for children has been criticized for:
Select one:
A. limited positive effects due to focusing on the individual
B. limited positive effects due to focusing on the behavior
C. being developmentally inappropriate due to children’s tendency to blame anger on others
D. being developmentally inappropriate due to children’s inability to control feelings and behaviors
Correct Answer is: A
One criticism of anger management training for children has been that most programs, which utilize a cognitive-behavioral approach, place the emphasis on the individual’s perceptions, feelings and behaviors while ignoring the interpersonal or systemic factors. Research indicates that training program effectiveness is increased by expanding beyond the individual to include family, peer and community relationships. (See: Morley, E. & Rossman, S.B. (1997). Helping At-Risk Youth: Lessons From Community-Based Initiatives, Washington D.C., The Urban Institute.)
For children of divorce, frequent visitation with the noncustodial father usually results in:
Select one:
A. fewer behavioral problems among boys but not girls and higher academic achievement among girls but not boys
B. fewer behavioral problems and higher academic achievement if the noncustodial father is supportive and authoritative
C. fewer behavioral problems and higher academic achievement regardless of the characteristics of the noncustodial father
D. fewer behavioral problems and higher academic achievement regardless of the parent’s level of conflict
Correct Answer is: B
The effects of visitation on children’s adjustment following divorce are dependent upon several factors, including the quality of the relationship between the divorced parents and certain attributes and behaviors of the noncustodial parent. Specifically, frequent visitation with the noncustodial father has been found to result in fewer behavioral problems and higher academic achievement, especially in boys, when the father was supportive, authoritative, and lacked any significant problems in adjustment, and when the child was not exposed to high levels of conflict between the parents [See: E. M. Hetherington, An overview of the Virginia Longitudinal Study of Divorce and Remarriage with a focus on early adolescence, Journal of Family Psychology,7(1), 1993, 39-56].
Additional Information: Effects on Children (Divorce)
The number of babies born with a chromosomal abnormality is approximately 1 in 200. Characterized by mental retardation and extreme obesity, Prader-Willi syndrome is caused by: Select one: A. a chromosomal deletion B. a chromosomal translocation C. an extra chromosome D. a missing chromosome
Correct Answer is: A
Prader-Willi syndrome and cri-du-chat are two disorders caused by a chromosomal deletion which occurs when part of a chromosome is missing.
A chromosomal translocation* occurs when a section of a chromosome is attached to another chromosome. An extra chromosome* results in disorders such as Down Syndrome and Klinefelter Syndrome. A missing chromosome* causes a disorder like Turner Syndrome which occurs only in females and involves the absence of one X chromosome (* incorrect options).
Of Kramer's stages of cognitive development in adulthood, which would most likely be improved by an undergraduate university education? Select one: A. absolutist reasoning B. dialectical reasoning C. inductive reasoning D. relativist reasoning
Correct Answer is: D
Kramer (1983) describes three stages or characteristics of adult cognitive development: an understanding of the relativistic nature of knowledge (relativist reasoning); an acceptance of contradiction as a part of reality; and an integrative approach to thinking. According to Kramer, the stage of relativist reasoning includes an awareness of alternative perspectives on issues and the importance of context when finding answers to questions and thus most likely to be facilitated by undergraduate learning and experiences.
Kramer indicates adolescents tend to enter university with absolutist, or idealistic, reasoning abilities and typically most people do not develop dialectical reasoning abilities until late adulthood. Dialectial reasoning involves the recognition of contradiction, then moving on to the reconciliation of basic elements of the opposing perspectives. Postformal reasoning and inductive reasoning are not stages in Kramer’s theory of cognitive development in early adulthood. (See: Kramer, D.A., (1983) Post-Formal Operations? A Need for Further Conceptualization. Human Development, 26:2, 91-105. And: Kramer, D., & Woodruff, D. S. (1986). Relativistic and dialectical thought in three adult age-groups. Human Development, 29: 280-290.)
According to Piaget, the concrete operations stage occurs during: Select one: A. 2 to 5 years B. 5 to 7 years C. 7 to 11 years D. 11 to 16 years
Correct Answer is: C
Piaget proposed that cognitive abilities develop in a fixed sequence of four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. The sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years) is characterized by learning through sensory information and the development of object permanence. The preoperational stage (2 to 7 years) is marked by a tremendous increase in symbolic thought and language. Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years), which is predominant during the elementary school years, is marked by the development of reversibility and decentration which enables conservation. Finally, the formal operational stage (11 to 16 years), begins in early adolescence and is characterized by the ability to abstract, which enables hypothetical-deductive reasoning.
Additional Information: Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)
Research investigating adjustment in early adolescence to parental remarriage has suggested that
Select one:
A. remarriage and the corresponding family structural changes negatively impact early adolescent girls more than early adolescent boys.
B. remarriage and corresponding family structural changes negatively impact early adolescent boys more than early adolescent girls.
C. factors such as increased maternal happiness and increased family functioning typically function as a “buffer” to protect both early adolescent girls and boys from the negative effects of family structural changes caused by remarriage.
D. both early adolescent boys and early adolescent girls typically adjust fairly rapidly to family structural changes caused by remarriage.
Correct Answer is: A
Longitudinal research has shown that, from the point of view of childhood adjustment to structural changes in the family introduced by remarriage and newly blended families, early adolescence is not a good time for a custodial parent to remarry. Adolescents, both boys and girls, display more difficulty adjusting to this new situation on the average than young children. In addition, girls in early adolescence seem particularly prone to adjustment difficulties than boys at the same age. Experts have suggested that these difficulties may be due to the stepfather “dethroning” the almost exclusive relationship the girl previously had with her mother.
Additional Information: Remarriage and Stepparents
Which of the following is the most valid predictor of post-divorce adjustment in children two years after the divorce?
Select one:
A. whether children got to live with the parent they wanted
B. the degree to which parents fought before the divorce
C. whether or not parents are engaged in ongoing conflict after the divorce
D. how the children felt during the divorce process.
Correct Answer is: C
Many researchers have noted that continued exposure of children to parental conflict – whether it be while their parents are married, during the divorce process, or after a divorce – is associated with a variety of adverse effects and is a very high risk factor for maladjustment.
Additional Information: Effects on Children (Divorce)
Sibling relationships during preadolescence are most likely to be characterized by: Select one: A. competitiveness and cooperation. B. detachment and distance. C. closeness and conflict. D. hostility and conflict.
Correct Answer is: C
Research indicates sibling relationships often involve both positive and negative aspects or contradictions however closeness and conflict seems to be particularly characteristic of sibling relationships during preadolescence.
Patterson's research on delinquency has shown that the parents of antisocial adolescents are most often Select one: A. hostile and rejecting. B. overindulgent. C. lax and uninvolved. D. overcontrolling.
Correct Answer is: C
Delinquency has been linked to a number of parental characteristics, especially lax supervision, nonenforcement of rules, and noninvolvement in the child’s life.
Additional Information: Parental Influences on Personality
According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, a child who is able to generate multiple theories as to why something occurred and then arrive at one theory based on the evidence at hand is displaying Select one: A. formal operational thought. B. preoperational thought. C. decentration. D. concrete operational thought.
Correct Answer is: A
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development identifies four developmental stages, roughly correlated with specific age ranges. As children progress through these stages, their methods of assimilating new information, accommodating existing cognitive structures to new information, and mentally representing information in general become more sophisticated. The fourth and final stage, formal operational thought, begins at about the age of 12, though not everyone fully completes this stage. It involves the ability to think abstractly, reason logically and draw conclusions from available information. One characteristic of formal operational thought is hypothetico-deductive reasoning, which involves the ability to generate multiple theories for a phenomenon and choose one theory over others based on reasoning and evidence.
Children's memory for early events: Select one: A. cannot be recalled by most after age 3 B. is limited and constant C. changes after age 2 D. changes as it develops over time
Correct Answer is: D
Recent research has found that babies memories are not lost, rather they are updated continually as learning progresses. Their ability to recall is influenced by the same factors and conditions that impact recall in older children and adults. These include: the nature of the events; the number of times they experience them; and the availability of cues or reminders. Children from ages one to three are all capable of both immediate and long-term recall of specific events in their lives. Infants tested at two, four, and six months can recall details about hidden objects, their location, and size. The failure in retrieving memories from the first years of life refers to the phenomenon of infantile amnesia.
Infantile amnesia has been theorized to be the result of a lack of schematic organization of experience, a different in way of encoding in early childhood, and, more recently, the importance of language development. Studies on memory and language development suggest that memories are made initially as the result of the child talking about them with someone else. As the ability to reason develops, the memory securing conversations are carried out within the child him/herself (See: Bauer, P. J. (1996). What do infants recall of their lives? Memory for specific events by one- to two-year-olds, American Psychologist, 51 (1), 29-41. and Meltzoff, A. N. (1995). What infant memory tells us about infantile amnesia: Long-term recall and deferred imitation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 59, 497-515.)
Additional Information: Memory in Infancy and Childhood
The effects of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Select one:
A. are irreversible and long-term.
B. remit within the first six months in about 25% of cases.
C. are reversible if proper nutrition is provided to the child.
D. remit by the age of six except for lingering learning difficulties.
Correct Answer is: A
The term Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) refers to a set of severe and complex deficits in children produced by prolonged and heavy maternal alcohol use during pregnancy. Symptoms vary depending on the amount of alcohol consumed; typical features included growth retardation, microcephaly, irritability, and a variety of physical illnesses. In most cases, the symptoms are irreversible.
Additional Information: Alcohol (Teratogen)
Research has found all of the following to be true regarding aggressiveness in children and adolescents except:
Select one:
A. aggressive youth are more likely than their peers to believe that aggressive behavior will have positive outcomes.
B. aggressive youth have fewer behavioral responses to social situations than their peers.
C. aggressive youth are more likely than their peers to base their interpretation of social interactions on cues that occurred at the beginning of the social interactions.
D. aggressive youth are more likely than their peers to misinterpret other’s behaviors as intentionally hostile.
Correct Answer is: C
The recency effect has been shown to be more pronounced than the primacy effect in regards to aggressiveness in children and adolescents. That is, they are more likely to focus on cues that occurred at the end of a social interaction than at the beginning. All of the other statements regarding youth aggressiveness are true.
Additional Information: Origins of Aggression
A child who is not putting together two-word phrases, by which of the following ages, should be taken in for an evaluation? Select one: A. 12 months B. 18 months C. 24 months D. 30 months
Correct Answer is: D
The use of two-word sentences, called telegraphic speech, normally appears between the age of 1-2 years. It would rarely be absent by the age of 30 months; if it is, a developmental evaluation is justified.
Additional Information: Sequence of Language Development
According to Piaget, children do not begin to deliberately lie until about age: Select one: A. 4 B. 5 C. 7 D. 10
Correct Answer is: C
Conservation is the ability to understand that changing an object’s appearance doesn’t change the object’s physical qualities. For example, water poured from a tall thin glass into a short wide glass will be conserved, or understood to be the same amount of water. Conservation develops during the concrete operations stage (7 to 12 years). Note that there may be slight variations between age ranges that you have studied and the age ranges presented in test questions. In this case, the most correct choice is 7 to 10 years, which falls within the 7 to 12 year range. This choice, 11 to 13 years, overlaps between the high end of concrete operations and the low end of formal operations (12 onward) - which is not as good a choice for the typical development of concrete operations.
Additional Information: Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)
Since his parents separated four months ago, Jessie Jr. is withdrawn, cries, and is easily angered for a day or two after visiting his noncustodial father on alternate weekends. When mom asks Jessie Jr. what's wrong, he says "nothing." Mom should interpret this as: Select one: A. a lack of attachment to dad. B. a lack of attachment to mom. C. a clear sign of sexual abuse. D. a normal response.
Correct Answer is: D
This is a difficult question because it provides so little information about Jesse Jr.’s behavior. However, it is normal for children to show distress before and after visits to the noncustodial parent, especially during the first few months after the divorce. (For sexual abuse to be the right answer, you’d want to see more severe symptoms that last for a longer period of time.)
Additional Information: Effects on Children (Divorce)
There is some evidence that hearing impairment in infancy (e.g., due to ear infections) may lead to some degree of persisting impairment in verbal skills and academic achievement even when the hearing deficit has been alleviated. This finding supports the notion of: Select one: A. canalization. B. sensitive periods. C. developmental delays. D. preordination.
Correct Answer is: B
Sensitive periods are times in development when a particular type of experience is necessary for development to occur. In the situation described in this question, a temporary loss of hearing during a sensitive period has had long-term repercussions. [See M. Rutter, Continuities and discontinuities from infancy, in J. D. Osofsky (ed.), Handbook of Infant Development, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1987.]
Additional Information: Critical versus Sensitive Periods
Which of the following is the “protective triad” of factors that increases the resilience of children from disadvantaged backgrounds?
Select one:
A. individual, family, and community
B. genetic, developmental, and individual
C. dispositional, situational, and physiological
D. psychological, sociological, and familial
Correct Answer is: A
Resilience in children can be defined as the ability to end up with good outcomes despite threats to development or adaptation such as low socioeconomic status, an absent parent, or severe marital discord in parents. Michael Rutter, a British psychologist who studied at-risk children in London and the Isle of Wight, identified three categories of factors that increase resiliency: positive individual personality in the child, a supportive family, and at least one supportive community agency such as a school or church. In other similar studies, the same protective triad of factors has emerged. Examples of each type of factor are given: Individual: social competence, positive sense of self, easygoing, good problem-solving skills; Family: authoritative parents who are warm and firm, parents who provide clear expectations, parents invested in their child’s education; Community: specific role model in community agency connected to child, good schools, supportive friends and neighbors, well delineated community.
Additional Information: Risk and Resilience
The ability to understand that changing an object's appearance doesn't change the object's physical qualities typically develops during years: Select one: A. 0 to 2 B. 2 to 6 C. 7 to 10 D. 11 to 13
Correct Answer is: C
Conservation is the ability to understand that changing an object’s appearance doesn’t change the object’s physical qualities. For example, water poured from a tall thin glass into a short wide glass will be conserved, or understood to be the same amount of water. Conservation develops during the concrete operations stage (7 to 12 years). Note that there may be slight variations between age ranges that you have studied and the age ranges presented in test questions. In this case, the most correct choice is 7 to 10 years, which falls within the 7 to 12 year range. This choice, 11 to 13 years, overlaps between the high end of concrete operations and the low end of formal operations (12 onward) - which is not as good a choice for the typical development of concrete operations.
Additional Information: Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)
Delinquency in adolescence is most associated with:
Select one:
A. low income families and low IQ score.
B. a mother who works outside the home and an unemployed father.
C. weak parental supervision and parental rejection.
D. harsh physical punishment and unreasonable rules.
Correct Answer is: C
The research is far from consistent on this issue. However, lack of parental supervision is frequently found as a correlate of delinquency along with a hostile relationship between parent and adolescent and parental rejection. Low SES, low IQ score, single-parent homes, and harsh discipline have weaker relationships with delinquency.
According to Speech Act Theory, the general act of saying something is referred to as a/an: Select one: A. locutionary act B. perlocutionary act C. illocutionary act D. propositional act
Correct Answer is: A
Speech-act theory, originated by Austin (1962) then further developed by Searle (1969), proposes by understanding the detail of what is being said or uttered, people will understand and communicate better with others. Specifically, a verbal utterance is defined in terms of its content, the intention of the speaker, and the effect on the listener. A locutionary act is an utterance of a meaningful sentence or statement, the act of saying something.
An illocutionary act* intends to communicate. It is the way in which something is said. A perlocutionary act* seeks to change behavior. It is the effect of what was said on the listener or speech acts that have an effect on the feelings, thoughts or actions of either the speaker or the listener. A propositional act* is something referenced, but no communication may be intended (* incorrect options). According to the theory, a speech act necessarily involves a locutionary act but may or may not involve an illocutionary act and a perlocutionary act. (See: Austin, J. L. (1962), How to do Things with Words. Oxford. Searle, J. R. (1969), Speech Acts. An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge.)
Children who have difficulty controlling their impulses and, although intelligent, are not motivated to achieve are most likely to have which type of parents? Select one: A. permissive B. authoritative C. authoritarian D. rejecting
Correct Answer is: A
According to the research of Baumrind, permissive or Laissez fairre parents express warmth but use little discipline. Their children have difficulty controlling their impulses and, although they are intelligent, they are not motivated to achieve.
authoritative
Authoritative parents, who are described as being high in control (demandingness) and high in warmth (responsiveness) tend to raise children who are most resilient to the stresses of life. These children have better coping skills, are more mature, responsible, and perform better on cognitive measures.
authoritarian
Authoritarian parents are high in control, but low in warmth. Their children are often insecure, dependent, and perform more poorly on cognitive tests.
rejecting
Uninvolved/rejecting/neglecting parents are low in both control and warmth and their children have the worst coping skills. The children tend to be antisocial, lack self-regulation, are more immature, and score lower on cognitive tests.
Additional Information: Parental Influences on Personality
The belief of adolescents that others are as preoccupied with their appearance and behavior as they are best describes the concept of: Select one: A. social norms. B. social referencing. C. a personal fable. D. an imaginary audience.
Correct Answer is: D
Elkind identified two aspects of the adolescent’s renewed egocentrism. The imaginary audience is the belief that one is always “on stage” ; the personal fable is the belief that one is unique and invulnerable. Elkind describes how young adolescents are preoccupied by themselves because they are undergoing major physiological changes and identified two aspects of the adolescent’s renewed egocentrism. Their egocentrism, based on the belief that others are as preoccupied with their appearance and behavior as they are, consequently results in their anticipating other’s thoughts and responses about them, and then constantly creating or reacting to an imaginary audience. Elkind noted this likely plays a role in the self-consciousness so common in early adolescence.
social norms.
Social norms are the rules that a group uses for appropriate and inappropriate values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors. These rules may be explicit or implicit.
social referencing.
Social referencing is considered a sign of attachment between a child and its caregiver.
a personal fable.
The second aspect Elkind introduced was the idea of the personal fable wherein adolescents construct a story or view about their personal uniqueness or the uniqueness of their experiences and feelings. An example of this is the common conviction that the adolescent will not die. Elkind believes the egocentrism of early adolescence usually lessens by the age of 15 or 16 as cognitive development proceeds.
According to Piaget, a child in the autonomous stage of development believes that
Select one:
A. rules are absolute
B. rules are useless
C. rules are arbitrary and alterable
D. punishment should be based on the damage caused by a behavior
Correct Answer is: C
Piaget distinguished two stages of moral development: heteronomous and autonomous. Heteronomous morality is characteristic of children 4-7 years old. The heteronomous child views rules as “absolute” and unchangeable and believes that punishment should fit the consequences of the behavior, regardless of the intentions of the actor (“punishment should be based on the damage caused by a behavior”). By age 7 or 8 children begin to exhibit autonomous morality, in which they realize that rules are determined, and agreed to, by individuals and are, therefore, alterable. They also consider the intention of the actor to be most important in determining punishment.
Additional Information: Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development
Non-consensual childhood sexual abuse generally has a:
Select one:
A. more negative impact for females than males
B. more negative impact for males than females
C. similar impact for males and females
D. similar impact for males and females but a very different pattern of symptoms
Correct Answer is: C
This is a difficult question because the research results on childhood sexual abuse are inconsistent. Many studies have found no consistent gender differences in impact or pattern of symptoms, while other studies have found a more negative impact for females than for males. One of the complicating factors has been the definition of childhood sexual abuse - which includes consensual sex involving a minor when there is a significant age difference between the two parties. However, when only non-consensual types of childhood sexual abuse are examined, males and females are equivalently affected [B. Rind, P. Tromovitch, R. Bauserman, A meta-analytic examination of assumed properties of child sexual abuse using college samples, Psychological Bulletin, 124(1), 1998, 22-53].
Additional Information: Characteristics of Abused Children
"What is "right" is what feels good to me" thinking would be characteristic of: Select one: A. principled morality. B. heteronomous morality. C. preconventional morality. D. postconventional morality.
Correct Answer is: C
Kohlberg distinguishes between three levels of moral development (preconventional, conventional, and postconventional), and each of these levels is further divided into two stages. The individual described in this question is in the first stage of the preconventional level. At the preconventional level, morality is based on the consequences of an act. Good behaviors are rewarded and bad behaviors are punished. The next level is conventional, in which morality is guided by the desire to maintain existing social laws, rules, and norms. At the post-conventional* or principled morality* level, individuals view morality in terms of self-chosen principles, where one functions according to one’s own conscience, no matter what the conventional wisdom is. Heteronomous morality* is a term use by Piaget to describe preschool children who believe that rules are absolute and unchangeable (* incorrect options.)
A child who uses the word "horse" to refer to a zebra is displaying Select one: A. overregularization. B. overextension. C. underregularization. D. underextension.
Correct Answer is: B
Overextension refers to the use of a word to label a set of objects that is broader than the set the object or objects to which the word is intended to refer. In this case, the child is apparently using the word horse to refer to other four-legged animals; therefore, he is displaying overextension. Overextension is common in the speech of toddlers. Regarding the other choices, underextension is the opposite of overextension; it occurs when a child does not generalize the word’s usage broadly enough. Overregularization refers to grammatical errors whereby a child uses a regular form for a word when the correct form is irregular (e.g., “holded” instead of held). Underregularization is a made up term.
Additional Information: Language Errors
Cameron has changed his major at college three times although believes he has finally found the right major after thoroughly reviewing his skills and interests. Which of Marcia's identity statuses is Cameron most likely in? Select one: A. foreclosure B. moratorium C. achievement D. diffusion
Correct Answer is: C
Crisis and commitment are the core variables in Marcia’s four identity status model. Identity diffusion* describes young people who have not undergone an identity crisis nor have committed to an identity. Identity foreclosure* is characterized by a commitment to an identity (e.g., career) that is not the result of an identity crisis, but rather, the suggestions of a parent or significant other. In moratorium, the individual is confused, in a state of crisis, has made no commitment and is actively exploring different options ( incorrect options).
Identity achievement signifies that the adolescent has surmounted the crisis and made a commitment.
The term "reminiscence bump" refers to the increased number of autobiographical memories older adults have for events that happened between the ages of: Select one: A. 40-50 B. 35-45 C. 25-35 D. 15-25
Correct Answer is: D
While adults 65 years and older generally report the most memories for events that occurred within the ten years before being evaluated, the next largest recall of autobiographical memories is from adolescence and early adulthood. In other words, recent and remote events are more frequently recalled than intermediate events.
Studies on the effectiveness of training for improving the cognitive skills of older people who have already experienced normal age-related declines have found that training
Select one:
A. is useful for verbal but not for nonverbal skills.
B. is useful for nonverbal but not for verbal skills.
C. can improve verbal and nonverbal skills to levels comparable to pre-decline levels.
D. can improve verbal and nonverbal skills but to a level significantly below pre-decline levels.
Correct Answer is: C
Results of the Seattle Training Study not only demonstrated that behavioral interventions can remediate verbal and nonverbal skills (e.g., inductive reasoning, spatial orientation) in elderly adults but, for about 40% of participants, raise these skills to pre-decline levels.
Additional Information: Age and Intelligence
According to Kohlberg, an individual who is concerned with obeying society's laws and rules is in which stage of moral development? Select one: A. preconventional B. conventional C. postconventional D. heteronomous
Correct Answer is: B
Kohlberg distinguishes between three levels of moral development (preconventional, conventional, and postconventional). At the preconventional level, morality is based on the consequences of an act. Good behaviors are rewarded and bad behaviors are punished. The next level is conventional, in which morality is guided by the desire to maintain existing social laws, rules, and norms. In the post-conventional level individuals view morality in terms of self-chosen principles.
Heteronomous morality is a term use by Piaget to describe preschool children who believe that rules are absolute and unchangeable.
Additional Information: Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Which of the following is achieved during the operations stages? Select one: A. magical thinking B. decentration C. symbolic thought D. object permanence
Correct Answer is: B
The “operations stages” refer to Piaget’s concrete operations and formal operations stages. The stages prior to the operations stages are the sensorimotor and “preoperations,” which, as its name implies, occurs before the development of operations abilities. The development of decentration and reversibility form the basis for conservation, which is the characteristic achievement of concrete operations (7 to 12 years).
Object permanence is achieved during the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years). Symbolic thought develops during the preoperations stage (2 to 7 years) resulting in the development of language and pretend play. Magical thinking is also characteristic of preoperational thought.
Additional Information: Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)
Depth perception in infants develops in which of the following sequences? Select one: A. kinetic, pictorial, binocular B. pictorial, binocular, kinetic C. kinetic, binocular, pictorial D. binocular, kinetic, pictorial
Correct Answer is: C
Research has indicated that infants develop depth perception in a predictable sequence: kinetic, binocular, and pictorial. Kinetic depth cues are based on movements of objects in the environment or the body. Babies as young as 3 weeks begin perceiving kinetic cues. For example, they will blink their eyes defensively when an object approaches their face and looks as if its going to hit them. Binocular depth perception begins between 2 and 3 months. And pictorial depth cues, which are used by artists to make paintings look three-dimensional, begins to develop at about 7 months of age.
Additional Information: Development During Infancy
The smallest distinctive sound units of language are referred to as: Select one: A. babbling B. phonemes C. morphemes D. holophrases
Correct Answer is: B
Phonemes are considered to be the most basic units of speech. They can be single letters which distinguish one word from another. For example, the letters “c” and “h” distinguish “cat” from “hat”. Phonemes combine to form morphemes, which are words or parts of words which carry meaning. Holophrases are whole words which are combined with gestures and intonation to express an entire thought.
Additional Information: Components of Language
An adolescent is unhappy with her recent haircut and feels that everyone is looking at her and laughing about her "bad hair." This is an example of Select one: A. a social trap. B. social referencing. C. personal fable. D. imaginary audience.
Correct Answer is: D
Elkind identified two aspects of the adolescent’s renewed egocentrism. The imaginary audience is the belief that one is always “on stage”; the personal fable is the belief that one is unique and invulnerable.
Additional Information: Formal Operational Stage (Piaget)
Which of the following of Freud's stage is comparable to Erikson's autonomy versus shame and doubt stage? Select one: A. genital B. phallic C. anal stage D. oral stage
Correct Answer is: C
Freud’s anal stage of psychosexual development and Erikson’s autonomy versus shame and doubt stage occur between the ages of one and three.
Freud’s oral stage occurs from birth to one year, the phallic stage from three to six years and the genital stage is associated with adolescence.
If a child can understand that A is greater than B and B is greater than C, and then understand that as a result, A is greater than C, this is an example of: Select one: A. Inductive reasoning B. Symbolic thought C. Deductive reasoning D. Pre-operational thought.
Correct Answer is: A
This is an example of inductive reasoning, or reasoning from a particular fact to a general rule.
Symbolic thought is the understanding that one thing can stand for another; deductive reasoning is reasoning from a general law to a particular case.
Research on sex-role determinants suggests the characteristic that is most related to genetics, as opposed to socialization, is: Select one: A. anxiety B. dependency C. sociability D. aggression
Correct Answer is: D
The vast majority of empirical studies indicate that very few abilities and traits that distinguish males from females are biologically determined. In other words, the things typically viewed as either inherently masculine or feminine are actually defined and developed through socialization. However, there are some characteristics that seem to transcend socialization. Aggression is the only one of the four response choices that appears to be more related to hormones than learning, with boys being naturally more active and having higher aggressive drives than girls. It is important to note though, recent research has found that gender differences in aggression needs to be qualified: Boys are more overtly (physically and verbally) aggressive than girls, but girls display more relational aggression - i.e., they try to harm or exert control over others by withdrawing their acceptance or friendship (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995).
In his theory of attachment, Bowlby referred to the structures which hold cognitive representations of self and others as:
Select one:
A. schemas
B. internal working models
C. representations of interactions that have been generalized (RIGs)
D. internalized objects
Correct Answer is: B
Bowlby used the term “internal working models” to describe the cognitive representations that children develop of themselves and others. He believed that these models are formed during early childhood, but continue to develop over time.
Additional Information: Attachment Theories
Erikson's final developmental stage is: Select one: A. generativity vs. stagnation. B. contentment vs. despondency. C. intimacy vs. isolation. D. ego integrity vs. despair.
Correct Answer is: D
Erikson is among those developmental psychologists who postulate qualitatively different stages we pass through from birth to senescence. Erikson’s final stage is called integrity versus despair. That is, in the last stage we look at our life and say “I did the best I could” or, alternatively, “I regret what I did.”
Symptoms of anxiety in response to the presence of unfamiliar adults usually begins at: Select one: A. 9 months B. 12 months C. 18 months D. 24 months
Correct Answer is: A
Stranger anxiety can first appear as early as 6 months of age, but it usually begins in infants between 8 and 10 months of age, peaks at about 18 months of age, and then gradually declines during the end of the second year.
Additional Information: Attachment Signs
Which of the following is associated with the shift in perspective from "time from birth" to "time to death" ? Select one: A. Levinson B. Erikson C. Neugarten D. Freud
Correct Answer is: C
From her research on the personality characteristics of adults aged 40-70, Neugarten (1968) found midlife to be characterized by this shift in perspective. This finding followed the Kansas City Study findings that people around age 50 experience a transition from active to passive mastery and outer to inner-world orientation. Levinson’s “seasons of a man’s life” and Erikson’s stages are theories of adult personality development that address developmental conflicts
Additional Information: Levinson’s “Seasons of a Man’s Life”
According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, a child who can imagine that clay broken up into many pieces can be reassembled into the original clay ball is displaying Select one: A. conservation. B. reversibility. C. multiple classification. D. hypothetico-deductive reasoning.
Correct Answer is: B
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development identifies four developmental stages, roughly correlated with specific age ranges. As children progress through these stages, their methods of assimilating new information, accommodating existing cognitive structures to new information, and mentally representing information in general become more sophisticated. The third stage, concrete operational, develops around the ages of 7-11. During this phase, children develop the ability to employ a number of logical operations they use to solve concrete (as opposed to abstract) problems. One of these operations, called reversibility, involves the ability to imagine that objects can be changed and then restored to their original state. The child described by the question is using reversibility.
Regarding the other choices, conservation is the ability to understand that quantity or fundamental properties of an object are not necessarily related to the object’s appearance. A child displaying conservation of liquid would know, for example, that the quantity of water does not decrease when it is poured from a tall thin glass to a short wide glass. Reversibility is a sign that conservation abilities are present but reversibility is a better answer for this question because it more specifically applies to this child. Multiple classification, another characteristic of concrete operational thought, is the ability to classify objects into more than one applicable category. And hypothetico-deductive reasoning involves the ability to generate multiple theories for a phenomenon and choose one theory over others based on reasoning and evidence. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning is a sign of formal operational thought, the final stage of Piaget’s theory.
Additional Information: Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)
Recently the relationship between Frank and one of his adult sons has become increasingly tense, conflicted and distant. Frank considers himself a loving and supportive father. He dismisses the problem as a temporary "phase" to avoid the situation. Frank's attempt to explain away the problem, according to Whitbourne's self-concept model, is an attempt to maintain his own self-concept through: Select one: A. identity assimilation B. identity accommodation C. identity styles D. rationalization
Correct Answer is: A
Identity process theory proposes that adjustment to aging can be conceptualized as involving the three processes of identity assimilation (maintaining self-consistency), identity accommodation (making changes in the self), and identity balance (maintaining a sense of self but changing when necessary). Despite the changes in the relationship with his son, Frank continues to think of himself as having a loving relationship in order to maintain his consistent sense of self. Research indicates only identity balance is positively related to internal state awareness, suggesting that the ability to incorporate age-related changes within an identity and at the same time maintain a consistent and positive view of the self is most conducive to successful aging. (See: Sneed, J.R. & Whitbourne, S.K. (2003). Identity Processing and Self-Consciousness in Middle and Later Adulthood. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 58, 313-319.)
When a child finds and uses clues from the context of a sentence to learn the meaning of a new word, this is referred to as: Select one: A. prosodic bootstrapping B. phonological bootstrapping C. syntactic bootstrapping D. semantic bootstrapping
Correct Answer is: C
In the area of language development and acquisition, “bootstrapping” refers to how a child must somehow “lift him/herself up by his/her bootstraps” to begin formulating a grammar for the language. Syntactic bootstrapping proposes that the sentence structure surrounding a new word provides clues to its meaning and, in this case, the language-learning child uses his/her developed syntactic knowledge to help learn the meaning of new words.
Semantic bootstrapping refers to the idea that children utilize conceptual knowledge to create grammatical categories. Under this approach, the meanings of words are used to identify the semantic category and then are inferred or “bootstrapped” to the syntax.
Prosodic bootstrapping suggests children find and use clues to syntactic structure of language in the prosodic (intonation, stress) characteristics of the speech they hear.
Phonological bootstrapping refers to the hypothesis that clues to the grammar of language are found in phonological (sound) properties of the speech heard. (See: Pinker, S. (1987). The Bootstrapping Problem in Language Acquisition. In B. MacWhinney (Ed.), Mechanisms of Language Acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. And: Weissenborn, J. & Hohle, B. (Eds.) (2001). Approaches to bootstrapping: Phonological, lexical, syntactic and neurophysiological aspects of early language acquisition. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.)
Which of the following statements is true regarding the treatment of diabetes for adolescents and children?
Select one:
A. Adolescents are more likely than children to show noncompliance with the prescribed treatment regimen.
B. Children are more likely than adolescents to show noncompliance with the prescribed treatment regimen.
C. Adolescents and children are equally likely to show noncompliance with the prescribed treatment regimen.
D. Both children and adolescents are likely to have little or no problems with the prescribed treatment regimen.
Correct Answer is: A
When children with a disability or a chronic illness reach adolescence, problems often arise due to their increased awareness and understanding of the problem, coupled with an enhanced desire to be similar to their peers. Sometimes, the adolescent may become depressed and act-out in ways that, given the person’s condition, are gravely dangerous. For instance, the adolescent may show reduced compliance with the prescribed treatment regimen.
Additional Information: Chronic Illness in Childhood and Adolescence
A 1-year old child is placed in a strange situation and appears to be uninterested in the environment and exhibits little distress when his mother leaves the room. According to Ainsworth, the child most likely has which of the following attachment patterns? Select one: A. secure B. avoidant C. resistant D. disorganized
Correct Answer is: B
A child with an avoidant pattern of attachment typically appears uninterested in the environment, shows little distress when the mother leaves and avoids contact with her when she returns.
Additional Information: Attachment Patterns
Prenatal alcohol exposure is most likely to adversely affect the fetus during the: Select one: A. first trimester B. second trimester C. third trimester D. the first or third trimester
Correct Answer is: A
Drinking alcohol anytime during pregnancy can have adverse effects on the fetus. However, alcohol consumption during the first trimester is more likely to cause structural and anatomical defects, characteristic of fetal alcohol syndrome. Consumption during the second and third trimesters is more likely to result in growth restriction and functional impairment. (Health Canada, population and public health branch, Canadian perinatal surveillance system: Alcohol and pregnancy, 1998, retrieved from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hpb/lcdc/brch/factshts/alcprg_e.html).
Additional Information: Teratogens
According to Piaget, when a child accommodates new information by forming a new schema or modifying an existing one, this results in Select one: A. decentration. B. equilibration. C. assimilation. D. symbolic representation.
Correct Answer is: B
As defined by Piaget, equilibration is a state of cognitive balance. The need for balance is what motivates the individual to assimilate and accommodate new information.
Additional Information: Piaget’s Constructivist Theory (Introduction)
The assertion that language is natural and similarities in grammar are present in many different languages is associated with which theory of language acquisition? Select one: A. Behaviorist B. Interactionist C. Speech Act D. Nativist
Correct Answer is: D
According to the nativist view of language acquisition, a biological aspect is responsible for language development.
The behaviorist theory focuses on the role of classical and operant conditioning on language. The interactionist theory suggests a link between the environmental and biological factors in the process of acquiring language.
According to Searle’s Speech Act theory (1969), an individual is doing one of five things when talking: asserting, directing, commiserating, expressing and declaring. Searle’s five illocutionary/perlocutionary points include: assertives, which are statements that may be viewed as true or false because they strive to describe a state of affairs in the world; directives, which are statements that attempt to make the other person’s actions fit the propositional content; commissives are statements which commit the speaker to a course of action as described by the propositional content; expressives are statements that express the “sincerity condition of the speech act” ; and declaratives are statements that attempt to change the world by “representing it as having been changed.” (See: Searle, J. R. (1969), Speech Acts. An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge.)
Additional Information: Nativist Theories
About 50% of infants walk well by: Select one: A. 9 months. B. 12 months. C. 14 months. D. 16 months.
Correct Answer is: B
Children vary considerably in terms of developmental milestones, but about 50% of children are walking well alone by 12 months and 90% by 14 months.
Additional Information: Motor Skills
An adult who positively describes his childhood relationship with his parents but his childhood memories either do not support or contradict the positive description would most likely be categorized as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ on the Adult Attachment Interview. Select one: A. autonomous B. avoidant C. preoccupied D. dismissing
Correct Answer is: D
The Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) assesses an individual’s childhood relationships with his or her mother and father and classifies the individual’s attachment style as autonomous, preoccupied, or dismissing. Individuals presenting inconsistent and incoherent descriptions of their childhood relationships with parents are categorized as dismissing. Examinees that supply coherent descriptions of their childhood relationships categorized as “autonomous” and individuals who may be preoccupied with a parent and become very confused or angry when describing their childhood relationships with parents are classified as preoccupied.
Otitis media with effusion in infants and toddlers
Select one:
A. is not associated with any long-term consequences.
B. is associated with learning delays or disabilities later in childhood.
C. is associated with oppositional behavior and conduct disturbances later in childhood.
D. is a predictor of a variety of personality disturbances that could last well into adulthood.
Correct Answer is: B
Otitis media with effusion (OME) refers to fluid in the middle ear without symptoms of an acute ear infection. The condition occurs most commonly in children aged 0-3. Because affected children do not display obvious symptoms such as infection or fever, the condition may go untreated for months, with hearing adversely affected during this time. A history of otitis media is twice as common in learning disabled children as those without learning disabilities. This is probably because the condition can reduce exposure to language during critical periods of language development, though some have identified other possible reasons, such as a higher incidence of OME in children in lower socioeconomic groups.
Additional Information: Etiology (Specific Learning Disorder)
Which of the following is true regarding an infant’s crying?
Select one:
A. For all infants, one cry represents all human emotions.
B. For infants in the first six months of life, one cry represents all human emotions; afterwards, different types of cries are distinguishable.
C. At birth, one cry represents all human emotions, but by the age of three weeks, cries for hunger, anger, and pain are distinguishable.
D. In a newborn infant, cries for hunger, anger, and pain are distinguishable.
Correct Answer is: D
Three types of cries have been identified in newborn infants: a cry for hunger, a cry for anger, and a cry for pain. A fourth cry, one for attention, develops later than the other types – about three weeks after birth. Parents quickly become adept at distinguishing between these cries, and research indicates that they are better at distinguishing their own babies’ cries than those of a strange infant.
Additional Information: Crying in Infancy
Research investigating parental responses to an infant’s cries has found that:
Select one:
A. mothers, but not fathers, respond to an infant’s cries with physiological arousal.
B. mothers and fathers both respond to all types of cries (hunger, pain, and anger) with a similar level of physiological arousal.
C. mothers and fathers respond to all types of cries, but the infant’s pain cry produces the greatest amount of physiological arousal.
D. first-time mothers and fathers respond with less physiological arousal to all types of cries than parents who already have one or more children.
Correct Answer is: C
You may have been able to answer this question if you think about your own responses to an infant’s cries. Although parents have a stronger physiological response to their own infants, just about everyone seems to have some response to a crying baby, although it may be of less intensity. In addition, the different kinds of cries produce different responses. Not surprisingly, a stronger response is elicited by a pain cry than by a hunger or anger cry.
Additional Information: Crying in Infancy
Kohlberg’s view of the relationship between moral judgment and moral action is best described by which of the following?
Select one:
A. moral judgment and moral action do not have a consistent relationship during any specific stage of moral development.
B. moral judgment and moral action have a strong relationship during all stages of moral development.
C. moral judgment and moral action have the strongest relationship during the lower stages of moral development.
D. moral judgment and moral action have the strongest relationship during the higher stages of moral development.
Correct Answer is: D
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development focuses on moral judgment and distinguishes judgment from moral action. Kohlberg proposes the higher the moral reasoning, the more likely moral action is and the greater the consistency is between moral judgment and action because the higher stages increasingly employ more stable and general principles.
Additional Information: Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
The research suggests that, to control excessive aggression in children, the best approach is:
Select one:
A. time-out and similar behavioral techniques.
B. opportunities for catharsis.
C. explaining the consequences of aggressive acts.
D. social-skills training.
Correct Answer is: D
A number of techniques have been found useful for reducing aggression in children, but many of them (e.g., catharsis) have only short-term effects. In the long run, the best thing to do is to teach aggressive children alternative, nonaggressive, prosocial behaviors, which is a component of social-skills training.
Additional Information: Reducing Aggression
Children of divorced parents not only have to adjust to their parents’ separation but often have to eventually adapt to the remarriage of one or both of their parents. Investigators looking as the impact of stepparents have found that
Select one:
A. stepmothers discipline their stepchildren more than the children’s biological mothers.
B. stepmothers have more difficulty with stepsons than with stepdaughters.
C. stepfathers provide less support, less control, and less punishment than biological fathers.
D. stepfathers get along better with stepdaughters than with stepsons.
Correct Answer is: C
Stepparent-stepchild relationships have been investigated by Hetherington and others, who have found that stepfathers are generally uninvolved in the raising and discipline of their stepchildren (although the relationship between stepfathers and stepsons may improve somewhat over time).
According to the current research, the effects on children of observing aggressive models, such as through television violence, are Select one: A. short-term but not long-term. B. long-term but not short-term. C. both short-term and long-term. D. neither short-term nor long-term.
Correct Answer is: C
Research on the effects of television violence on children’s behavior demonstrates that viewing aggressive models is associated with increased aggressive behavior. Moreover, these effects can be long-lasting; they have been observed in longitudinal studies lasting up to 22 years.
Additional Information: Social Learning Theory
The most resilient children are raised by parents who are:
Select one:
A. low in control and high in warmth
B. high in control and high in warmth
C. high in demandingness and low in responsiveness
D. low in demandingness and low in responsiveness
Correct Answer is: B
According to the research of Baumrind, authoritative parents, who are described as being high in control (demandingness) and high in warmth (responsiveness) tend to raise children who are most resilient to the stresses of life. These children have better coping skills, are more mature, responsible, and perform better on cognitive measures. [D. Baumrind, The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use, Journal of Early Adolescence, 1991, 11(1), 56-95].
low in control and high in warmth
Permissive or Laissez fairre parents express warmth but use little discipline. Their children have difficulty controlling their impulses and, although they are intelligent, they are not motivated to achieve.
high in demandingness and low in responsiveness
Authoritarian parents are high in control, but low in warmth. Their children are often insecure, dependent, and perform more poorly on cognitive tests.
low in demandingness and low in responsiveness
Uninvolved/rejecting/neglecting parents are low in both control and warmth and their children have the worst coping skills. The children tend to be antisocial, lack self-regulation, are more immature, and score lower on cognitive tests.
Additional Information: Parental Influences on Personality
To study attachment, a researcher has a mother of a one-year old stand on the deep side of the visual cliff, while the child is placed on the shallow side. The researcher finds that when a mother smiles, the child crosses to its mother, but, when the mother frowns, the child does not approach her and cries. This phenomenon is referred to as: Select one: A. social distancing. B. social referencing. C. social facilitation/inhibition. D. social comparison.
Correct Answer is: B
Even if you had never heard of social referencing, you may have been able to pick the right answer by the process of elimination (i.e., hopefully, you know what social facilitation, social inhibition, and social comparison are since they are topics that could appear on the exam and are covered in the study materials; social distancing is a ficticious term). Social referencing is considered a sign of attachment between a child and its caregiver.
Additional Information: Attachment Signs
By the age of 6, which of the following are established?
Select one:
A. gender identity and stability
B. gender identity and constancy
C. gender constancy and stability
D. gender constancy, identity and stability
Correct Answer is: D
Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental theory of gender concept development, grounded in Piagetian theory, asserts that children gradually progress through three stages. Gender identity, usually gained by age three, is the ability to correctly label own gender and identify others as boys/men and girls/women. Gender stability - knowledge, usually gained by age four years, that reflects an understanding that one’s gender remains the same throughout life. Gender constancy: realization, around age 5, 6 or 7 years, that one’s gender stays the same even with alterations in appearance, behaviors, or desires.
A distinguishing characteristic of the Montessori teaching method is
Select one:
A. children are grouped by developmental level rather than by age.
B. children are free to select their own learning activities.
C. it emphasizes emotional development and academic achievement.
D. its focus on group activities and learning experiences.
Correct Answer is: B
In the Montessori classroom, children are encouraged to select their own activities; the teacher observes the children and assists them when they truly need help. There is very little didactic group teaching. The method is based on the assumption that the child is an active learner whose drive for self-development is aided by an orderly but stimulating environment.
children are grouped by developmental level rather than by age.
This option is incorrect because the Montessori classroom is heterogeneous in regard to both age and developmental level – older children are viewed as good role models for younger children.
it emphasizes emotional development and academic achievement.
This is not an incorrect statement about the Montessori method, but it is not something that distinguishes it from other educational methods.
its focus on group activities and learning experiences.
Contrary to this choice, critics of the Montessori method have cited its lack of opportunity for group learning experiences as one of its weaknesses.
Additional Information: Montessori Method
According to Huesmann et al. (2003), the long-term effects of TV violence on children growing up in the 1970-80’s, indicate childhood exposure to media violence:
Select one:
A. predicts young adult aggressive behavior only for males
B. predicts young adult aggressive behavior for males and females
C. predicts young adult aggressive behavior only for males with low social economic status or intellectual ability
D. predicts young adult aggressive behavior only for males and females with low social economic status or intellectual ability
Correct Answer is: B
Unlike studies on children growing up in the 1960’s which found aggressive behavior only in males, Huesmann et al. (2003) found childhood exposure to TV violence is stimulating an increase in adult aggression in males and females. This effect persists even when the effects of socioeconomic status, intellectual ability, and a variety of parenting factors are controlled. More childhood exposure to TV violence, greater childhood identification with same-sex aggressive TV characters, and a stronger childhood belief that violent shows tell about life “just like it is” predicted more adult aggression regardless of the initial aggressiveness of the child. (See: Rowell Huesmann, L., Moise-Titus, J., Podolski, C., and Eron, L.D. (2003). Longitudinal Relations Between Children’s Exposure to TV Violence and Their Aggressive and Violent Behavior in Young Adulthood: 1977-1992. Psychology-Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 201-221.)
Additional Information: Social Learning Theory
The cortex is the least developed part of the brain at birth. Subsequent development is due primarily to:
Select one:
A. the growth of new neurons.
B. the growth of new neurons and glial cells.
C. increases in the size of existing neurons.
D. myelination of existing neurons.
Correct Answer is: D
Nearly all of the neurons are present at birth, and continued development of the brain following birth is due primarily to an increased number of dendrites and myelination of the existing neurons.
Additional Information: Brain Development
Research comparing beliefs about the cause of memory problems among older and younger adults suggests that:
Select one:
A. younger adults are much more likely than older adults to attribute memory impairments in the elderly to a lack of effort or other controllable factor.
B. older adults are more likely to attribute memory impairments in the elderly to the effects of aging, while younger adults are more likely to attribute memory impairments in the elderly to a lack of effort or other controllable factor.
C. younger and older adults are both much more likely to attribute memory impairments in the elderly to the effects of aging than to controllable factors.
D. younger and older adults are both more likely to attribute memory impairments in young people and the elderly to controllable factors than to aging or other uncontrollable factors.
Correct Answer is: C
Older and younger adults both fall prey to the stereotype that substantial memory loss is a natural part of the aging process and automatically attribute memory problems in older people to their advanced age.
Additional Information: Memory in Adulthood
A 16-year old girl is sexually promiscuous and does not practice safe sex. When confronted with information about sexually transmitted diseases and pregnancy, she states “that could never happen to me.” The girl’s behavior is characteristic of
Select one:
A. adolescent egocentrism.
B. concrete operational thought.
C. teenagers who have been sexually abused.
D. an immature system of defense mechanisms.
Correct Answer is: A
According to Piaget and researchers who have studied his theories, adolescents are prone to what has been termed “formal operational egocentrism” or “adolescent egocentrism.” This is characterized by a number of beliefs and modes of thinking, including the belief that the world can only become a better place through implementation of a grand idealistic system, the belief that others are as concerned with the adolescent’s behavior as the adolescent him- or herself is, and (as in this question) a strong faith in one’s own invulnerability and uniqueness.
Additional Information: Formal Operational Stage (Piaget)
Which of the following is true regarding Klinefelter’s Syndrome?
Select one:
A. It occurs only in males
B. It occurs only in females
C. It typically results in severe to profound mental retardation
D. Its symptoms are preventable with dietary restrictions
Correct Answer is: A
Klinefelter’s Syndrome only affects males and is caused by an extra X chromosome (XXY). Males with this disorder have typical masculine interests in childhood and develop a normal male identity, but they show an incomplete development of secondary sex characteristics and are often sterile. Klinefelter’s does not typically cause severe mental retardation, although most experience some degree of impairment in language and some do have mild mental retardation [R. Bock, Understanding Klinefelter Syndrome: A guide for XXY males and their families (NIH Pub. No. 93-3202), August 1993, Retrieved from http://www.genetic.org/ks/scvs/KS_NIH.htm]. Finally, while some “XXY males” do not develop the syndrome, Klinefelter’s is not believed to be preventable through diet. The symptoms of phenylketonuria (PKU), on the other hand, are preventable through a diet low in phenylalanine.
Additional Information: Chromosomal Abnormalities
The authoritative style of parenting typically results in better school performance among: Select one: A. Asians B. Hispanics C. African-Americans D. Whites
Correct Answer is: D
Overall, the authoritative style of parenting (as compared to the authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved styles) has the most positive outcomes in children’s growth and development - including academic achievement. However, researchers have found that the benefits of authoritative parenting are moderated by ethnicity. Specifically, Hispanics and African-Americans do not appear to benefit as much as Whites from having authoritative parenting. And, although Asian-Americans tend to do well academically, they are least likely to have authoritative parents. [See: L. Steinberg, S.M.Dornbusch, & B.B. Brown. Ethnic Differences in Adolescent Achievement: An Ecological Perspective. American Psychologist, 1992, 47 (6), 723-729].
Additional Information: Parental Influences on Personality
Studies of parents’ gender-related perceptions of offspring indicate:
Select one:
A. mothers do not perceive girls and boys differently until 6-12 months of age.
B. fathers perceive girls and boys differently after 3-6 months of age.
C. neither parent perceives girls and boys differently until 12-24 months of age.
D. both parents perceive girls and boys differently from day of birth.
Correct Answer is: D
Research on parents’ gender-related perceptions of their newborn offspring shows that gender-related stereotypes have declined in the last 20-30 years, but they still exist and both parents perceive girls and boys differently within 24 hours after the child’s birth. For example, parents of infant girls tend to describe them as more delicate, more feminine and less strong than parents of boys. These gender-related perceptions may affect how boys and girls are treated and influence gender-related behaviors. Earlier research findings suggested fathers exhibited more stereotypes than mothers, however more recent finding have not found significant differences between fathers and mothers.
The effects of parental discipline on the development of conscience in toddlers is mediated by the toddlers' level of: Select one: A. fearfulness B. intelligence C. activity level D. pain threshold
Correct Answer is: A
Research by Kochanska (1997) has indicated that toddlers’ level of fearfulness mediates the effects of parental discipline. Specifically, the use of “gentle discipline” was found more effective for the development of conscience among fearful toddlers than among fearless toddlers. Fearless toddlers, on the other hand, developed conscience better through the use of a secure mother-child attachment. It should be noted that these results were primarily found during the toddler years and were not significant or were less significant when reassessed during preschool years [Multiple pathways to conscience for children with different temperaments: From toddlerhood to age 5, Psychology-Developmental Psychology, 33(2), 228-240].
Additional Information: Parental Influences on Personality
When helping his younger sister with her homework, an older brother "thinks aloud" while solving problems and gives his sister suggestions and support. This is best described as Select one: A. mentoring. B. scaffolding. C. social facilitation. D. social referencing.
Correct Answer is: B
The older brother is using techniques associated with “scaffolding,” which was originally described by Vygotsky and refers to the temporary support that parents, teachers, and more experienced children give to a child to help him/her do a task or acquire a skill.
Additional Information: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Symptoms of separation anxiety usually begin to appear at approximately: Select one: A. 5 months B. 9 months C. 12 months D. 18 months
Correct Answer is: B
Although separation anxiety sometimes begins as early as 5 or 6 months, it typically has its onset at 8 or 9 months of age, rises dramatically until the age of 18 months, and then gradually falls off until it becomes negligible between the ages of 24-36 months. Prior to the onset of separation anxiety, babies do not typically protest when separated from their primary caretakers, even though a number of attachment behaviors develop during this time.
Additional Information: Attachment Signs
A mother brings her 18-month old child in for psychological testing. She’s concerned because the baby is not walking or talking yet. What should you do first?
Select one:
A. refer the mother to a physician to test the child’s vision and hearing
B. reassure the mother that her child’s development is proceeding at a normal rate
C. test the child’s intelligence
D. take a thorough family history
Correct Answer is: A
This is really a question about child development as well as possible causes of delays in development. By the age of 18 months, a child should be walking and at least saying a few words, and a plausible cause of delays in these areas is sensory deficits, especially visual and auditory deficits. Testing the child’s intelligence would probably not be the first thing you would do, even though Mental Retardation could account for these delays. However, you’d want to first rule out physical/sensory deficits before concluding that the problem is due to low intelligence.
Additional Information: Development During Infancy
Kohlberg's theory of moral development is based on the assumption that progress through his hypothesized stages is related to Select one: A. changes in social perspective. B. changes in self-concept. C. socioemotional development. D. identity development.
Correct Answer is: A
Kohlberg believed that the three levels of moral reasoning reflect different levels of cognitive development, which encompasses changes in social perspective-taking. At the conventional level, the person views an individual as a member of society and bases his/her moral judgments on that conceptualization.
Additional Information: Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Self-conscious emotions like pride, shame or embarrassment begin to be exhibited by children between the ages of: Select one: A. 3-9 months B. 6-12 months C. 18-24 months D. 30-36 months
Correct Answer is: C
Between 18 and 24 months, the sense of self emerges and children begin expressing self-conscious emotions. The emergence of self-conscious emotions is a predictable milestone in the sequence of stages during emotional development. (See: L. Berk, Development Through the Lifespan, Boston, Allyn & Bacon, 2004.)
Additional Information: Early Emotions
Play in children, as opposed to play in adolescents and adults
Select one:
A. is solely a form of imitation.
B. contributes to mastery of the environment.
C. is basically a form of entertainment.
D. is for the purpose of competition and attaining power.
Correct Answer is: B
Many theorists and researchers have identified developmental benefits of children’s play. Piaget, for instance, believed that pretend play was a form of learning about the world, whereby children assimilate new rules and objects into their cognitive schema. In other words, one of the developmental functions of play is to help children learn about and master their environment.
Additional Information: Piaget’s Constructivist Theory
Hostile pre-schoolers who are aggressive toward their schoolmates exhibited which of the following attachment patterns in infancy? Select one: A. secure attachment B. anxious/resistant attachment C. disorganized/disoriented attachment D. anxious/avoidant attachment
Correct Answer is: C
The strongest single predictor of deviant levels of hostile behavior toward peers in the classroom is early disorganized/disoriented attachment status. Seventy-one percent of aggressive pre-schoolers were classified as disorganized in their attachment relationships in infancy according to Lyons-Ruth, Alpern, and Rapacholi (1993). Ainsworth (1978) described infants with a disorganized/disoriented attachment as “dazed, confused, and apprehensive.” According to Ainsworth, securely attached babies are emotionally sensitive and responsive, anxious/resistant attached babies are anxious when their mother is present and distressed when she leaves, and anxious/avoidant attached babies are uninterested in their environment, show little distress when their mothers leave and avoid contact with her when she returns.
Additional Information: Attachment Patterns
Saying "go-ed" instead of "went", "foots" instead of feet, and "runned" instead of "ran" are examples of: Select one: A. agrammaticism B. overgeneralization C. overregularization D. overextension
Correct Answer is: C
Overregularization occurs when grammatical rules are overextended, such as the examples in the question- adding “s” to foot to form the plural or “ed” to run to form the past tense. Overregularization is common among three and four year olds who typically love rules and override some of the irregulars they learned when younger.
Agrammaticism is the loss of the ability to combine words into correct sentences. Overextension occurs when a child uses a specific word to mean something more general, such as the word hat meaning anything put on the head or doggie for any animal.
Additional Information: Language Errors
Children raised by parents who are very demanding but warm are likely to be highly: Select one: A. neurotic B. oppositional C. insecure D. resilient
Correct Answer is: D
Authoritative parents are very demanding but also warm and responsive to their children. Children raised by authoritative parents tend be more mature and have better coping skills, or resilience to life stressors, than children raised with other parenting styles.
Additional Information: Parental Influences on Personality
Jerome and Jamal have significant problems with their peers. However, while Jerome is rejected by his classmates, Jamal is neglected. If Jerome and Jamal change schools, which of the following is most likely to happen?
Select one:
A. Jerome may be better accepted by his new classmates but Jamal will continue to be neglected.
B. Jamal may be better accepted by his new classmates but Jerome will continue to be rejected.
C. Jerome and Jamal will both be better accepted by their new classmates.
D. Jerome and Jamal will both continue to have the same peer problems they had in their old school.
Correct Answer is: B
Studies looking at the outcomes for rejected and neglected children have found that rejection is more stable than neglect. For example, when rejected and neglected change schools, neglected children may experience improvements in their peer status, while rejected children continue to be rejected by the new peer group.
Additional Information: Popularity with Peers
According to Piaget, centration is:
Select one:
A. characteristic of the formal operational stage and is the belief that others are as concerned with a subject’s behavior as the subject is.
B. characteristic of the preoperational stage and involves focusing on one aspect of a situation while neglecting others.
C. characteristic of the preoperational stage and is an inability to consider another’s point of view.
D. characteristic of the concrete operational stage in which it is understood that two objects can remain equal according to a certain measure despite changes to their perceived form.
Correct Answer is: B
According to Piaget, centration refers to a limitation of preoperational thought that leads a child to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect others, often leading to illogical conclusions.
characteristic of the formal operational stage and is the belief that others are as concerned with a subject’s behavior as the subject is.
This choice describes an imaginary audience (a term coined by David Elkind).
characteristic of the preoperational stage and is an inability to consider another’s point of view.
This refers to egocentrism.
characteristic of the concrete operational stage in which it is understood that two objects can remain equal according to a certain measure despite changes to their perceived form.
This describes conservation.
Additional Information: Preoperational Stage (Piaget)
