7- Learning Theory and Behavior Theory Flashcards
In terms of the Atkinson and Shiffrin model of human memory, which of the following best accounts for the recency effect?
Select one:
A. better storage in long-term memory due to rehearsal.
B. the lack of decay of information from short-term memory at the time of testing.
C. better retention in the sensory register due to stimulus characteristics.
D. less forgetting due to a lack of proactive interference.
Correct Answer is: B
The Atkinson and Shiffrin Multi-store Model of human memory divides the structure of memory into three components: the sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory. The sensory register stores unprocessed sensory information for less than a second. This information may or may not get selected for transfer to short-term memory, which retains information for about 15-30 seconds and has a capacity of 5-9 information chunks. If properly attended to, information from short-term store may be transferred to long-term memory, which holds information on a lasting basis. The recency effect refers to the tendency, when recalling items in a list, to better remember those toward the end of the list. There is also a tendency, called the primacy effect, to better remember items toward the beginning of the list. Together, the primacy and recency effects are referred to as the serial position effect. Research supports the notion that the recency effect occurs because, at the time of testing, the information at the end of the list is still present in short-term memory. For instance, if subjects engage in a distracting task after they study a list, the recency effect will be much weaker or disappear entirely.
Additional Information: Multi-Store Model, Multicomponent Model of Working Memory
A behavior therapist would likely view anxiety as the result of:
Select one:
A. classical conditioning, in which an aversive stimulus or negative life event served as an unconditioned stimulus.
B. classical conditioning, in which an aversive stimulus or negative life event served as a conditioned stimulus.
C. operant conditioning, in which a negative life event served as a punisher.
D. operant conditioning, in which the person is negatively reinforced for avoiding an anxiety-evoking stimulus.
Correct Answer is: A
This is a good question, because it requires you to have a good grasp of the classical conditioning paradigm as well as understand some of the differences between classical and operant conditioning. First, you might remember that classical conditioning is associated with the acquisition of involuntary responses, whereas operant conditioning is associated with voluntary responses.
classical conditioning, in which an aversive stimulus or negative life event served as an unconditioned stimulus.
classical conditioning, in which an aversive stimulus or negative life event served as a conditioned stimulus.
If you remembered this, you should have been able to narrow the choices down to these two options, since anxiety is an involuntary, uncontrollable response. According to the classical conditioning model of anxiety, a stimulus or event that naturally evokes anxiety (the unconditioned stimulus, or US) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus, CS) until the neutral stimulus comes to elicit anxiety. For example, being stuck in an elevator (the US), by being paired with elevators in general (the CS), might cause an elevator phobia.
operant conditioning, in which the person is negatively reinforced for avoiding an anxiety-evoking stimulus.
If you chose this response, you may have been thinking about avoidance conditioning, in which the avoidance response is negatively reinforced. However, in avoidance conditioning, the actual experience of anxiety is acquired through classical conditioning. Negative reinforcement is the mechanism that underlies the avoidance behavior, not the anxiety itself.
Additional Information: Techniques Based on Classical Extinction
Which of the following is the best description of flooding?
Select one:
A. Exposure to a previously conditioned stimulus in the absence of a real aversive stimulus.
B. Gradual in-vivo exposure to the feared stimulus while increasing negative responses.
C. Imaginal exposure to a previously conditioned stimulus while conducting guided imagery.
D. Exposure to an aversive stimulus at its maximum intensity while the person is engaging in an undesirable act.
Correct Answer is: A
This question exemplifies how the exam can sometimes take a relatively easy concept and describe it in convoluted language, thereby making the question more difficult than it needs to be. In flooding, a person is exposed to a feared stimulus in order to extinguish the fear. The theory underlying the technique is that the feared stimulus was previously a conditioned stimulus paired with an unconditioned aversive stimulus that naturally produces fear.
Exposure to a previously conditioned stimulus in the absence of a real aversive stimulus.
In other words, this choice is one way to describe the technique.
Additional Information: Techniques Based on Classical Extinction
Functional amnesia is characterized by: Select one: A. retrograde amnesia. B. amnesia for autobiographical information. C. impaired implicit memory. D. deficits in primary memory.
Correct Answer is: B
Functional amnesia is characterized by retrograde amnesia, especially for personal (autobiographical) information, which helps distinguish it from organic amnesia, which usually includes some degree of both anterograde and retrograde amnesia and is not limited to personal information.
Additional Information: Amnesia
Declarative memory is also known as: Select one: A. implicit memory B. explicit memory C. working memory D. semantic memory
Correct Answer is: B
Declarative memory is a type of long-term memory which one can report or declare. Another term for declarative memory is “explicit memory” because one can clearly or explicitly recall the memory.
Implicit memories, on the other hand, are retrieved without conscious awareness. Implicit memories are also referred to as “procedural” memories as these consist mostly of automatic skills or procedures. Semantic memory, which is knowledge about language and facts, is usually considered to be one type of declarative memory, but it is not a synonym for declarative memory (* incorrect options). The other type of declarative memory is episodic memory, which is memory for events that have been personally experienced.
Additional Information: Types of Long-Term Memory, Multi-Store Model
Slot machines provide reinforcement on a(n) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ schedule. Select one: A. variable interval B. variable ratio C. fixed interval D. fixed ratio
Correct Answer is: B
When playing the slot machines, reinforcement depends on the number of times you play, with that number varying from reinforcement to reinforcement. Sometimes you “win” after 8 plays, sometimes after 12, and so on. This is a variable ratio schedule.
Additional Information: Schedules of Reinforcement
Extinction treatment paradigms are often limited by: Select one: A. improperly applied reinforcers. B. accidental reinforcement. C. client expectations. D. practical constraints such as time.
Correct Answer is: B
In extinction interventions, you don’t want anything to accidentally reinforce the behavior. Let’s say you advised parents to ignore their child’s whining attention-seeking behavior, and the behavior reduced in intensity. Then, Grandma comes for a visit and when the child whines she gives him a cookie. This would be reinforcing, and so we’d be back to square zero and would have to do the extinction all over again. So, accidentally applied reinforcement often interrupts the extinction procedure.
Additional Information: Superstitious Behavior
According to the reformulated learned helplessness model, the feeling of helplessness that underlies depression is caused by
Select one:
A. a negative attributional style.
B. the belief that no action will have an effect on the person’s situation.
C. attribution of negative events to internal, stable, and global causes.
D. behaviors that do not elicit reinforcement from the external environment.
Correct Answer is: C
Seligman’s original model of learned helplessness was based on experiments with dogs, who after being administered inescapable shock later failed to make any efforts to escape from shock when it was possible to do so. Seligman’s explanation was that the inescapable shock led to helplessness, or the feeling that no actions one can take will lead to a positive outcome. In other words, this choice applies more to the original model of learned helplessness: belief that no action will have an effect on the person’s situation.
The reformulated model focuses on attributions for negative events. According to the model, individuals seek causal explanations for negative events and these explanations can be described in terms of three dimensions: internal-external, stable-unstable, and global-specific. The reformulated model holds that helplessness and therefore depression is caused by internal (e.g., “I have no friends because I have no social skills” rather than “I’m alone right now because I just moved to a new town”), stable (“I’ve always had and will always have terrible social skills” as opposed to “I’ll eventually meet people once I get settled in”) and global (“I am no good relating to anybody” vs. “I’m uncomfortable with new unfamiliar people”) attributions for negative events.
Additional Information: Reformulated Learned Helplessness Model
Expectations about one's ability to learn a new skill, accomplish a goal or create a particular outcome best defines which of the following? Select one: A. need for achievement B. self-efficacy C. locus of control D. self-actualization
Correct Answer is: B
Bandura coined the term self-efficacy to describe a person’s beliefs or expectations regarding his/her ability to perform specific tasks or behaviors. High self-efficacy indicates one believes he/she has the skills or knowledge required to complete a particular task successfully, whereas low reflects a lack of expectation or belief in one’s abilities.
McClelland’s term “need for achievement” refers to an acquired characteristic that motivates individuals to attempt tasks wherein there is a moderate likelihood of successful performance. Rotter’s term “locus of control” refers to an individual’s beliefs about the factors that control outcomes for him/her and is further distinguished between an internal and external locus of control. Maslow’s self-actualization refers to the development or full use of one’s potential.
Additional Information: Need Theories of Work Motivation
Individuals are most likely to remember which type of words in a test of working memory capacity? Select one: A. abstract B. short C. long D. similar-sounding
Correct Answer is: B
Working memory is the ability to hold several facts or thoughts in memory temporarily while solving a problem or performing a task. In their theory of working memory, Baddley and Hitch (1974) noted memory span is greater for shorter (spoken duration) words than longer words and referred to this as the “word-length effect.” Working memory is an intermediary and active memory system in the information processing area of the brain and has been found to be most associated with the prefrontal cortex and cingulate cortex.
Additional Information: Multi-Store Model, Multicomponent Model of Working Memory
After being exposed to a loud noise while playing with a rat, Watson's 11-month old Little Albert not only avoided the rat, but also avoided a rabbit, a dog, and cotton. This is an example of: Select one: A. higher-order conditioning B. response generalization C. aversive counterconditioning D. stimulus generalization
Correct Answer is: D
Stimulus generalization occurs when one conditioned stimulus is generalized to other stimuli.
In higher-order conditioning* a CS, after being paired with a US, becomes reinforcing on its own and can be paired with a second CS. For example, once a bell is paired with food resulting in salivation, the bell can be paired with a light until the light alone elicits salivation. Response generalization* occurs when a CS elicits not only the CR but other responses similar to it. Aversive counterconditioning* uses classical conditioning to reduce or eliminate an undesirable behavior (* incorrect options).
Additional Information: Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination
The key element in the most effective form of behavioral treatment for agoraphobia is
Select one:
A. exposure to the feared stimulus in vivo.
B. imaginal exposure to the feared stimulus.
C. relaxation training.
D. reinforcement for symptom reduction.
Correct Answer is: A
Agoraphobia is the fear of developing a symptom or having a panic attack in a situation in which there is no easy means of escape. As a result of this fear, the person may avoid public places and in severe cases, may remain confined to his home. Panic Disorder often accompanies Agoraphobia. Research suggests that in-vivo exposure is the most effective element in the behavioral treatment of Agoraphobia. The mechanism believed to underlie the effectiveness of exposure is extinction, or the repeated exposure of the person to a conditioned stimulus (that which came to elicit the fear through learning) without the unconditioned stimulus (that which naturally elicits the fear). There are a number of factors that affect the success of in-vivo exposure. For instance, gradual, therapist-assisted exposure is more effective than intense exposure over a short period of time. Also, treatment is more effective when the person has strong family relationships and one or more family member is involved in treatment.
Additional Information: Techniques Based on Classical Extinction
In order to get an infant's attention, a photographer shakes a rattle, which results in the infant turning toward the rattle and smiling. After numerous uses of this technique, the infant stops responding. This is most likely due to: Select one: A. adaptation B. extinction C. habituation D. satiation
Correct Answer is: C
Habituation is defined as a decrease in response strength due to repeated stimulation.
Satiation* occurs when a physiological need has been met, resulting in a decreased desire for that reinforcement. Extinction, in operant learning, involves eliminating reinforcement that previously followed a response ( incorrect options). In classical conditioning, extinction refers to the presentation of a CS without the US. Neither of these two models adequately apply to this question.
Additional Information: Techniques That Use Punishment
The basic principle behind the Rescorla-Wagner model of learning is:
Select one:
A. the less unexpected or surprising the US, the more conditioning will occur.
B. the more unexpected or surprising the US, the less conditioning will occur.
C. surprise determines not only if conditioning occurs but how much conditioning occurs.
D. surprise determines if conditioning occurs but not how much conditioning occurs.
Correct Answer is: C
The Rescorla-Wagner model is built on the idea that learning depends on the surprisingness of the US. When the occurrence of the US is surprising - a larger amount of conditioning occurs and if the occurrence of the US is less surprising - a relatively smaller amount of conditioning occurs.
In a study of memory, a researcher displays the letter "V" on a screen for a brief period of time. After removing the letter subjects are asked to recall what they saw. The researcher found that several of the subjects reported seeing the wrong letter. The most common incorrect letter reported was? Select one: A. A B. B C. W D. X
Correct Answer is: B
Studies such as this one have found that although information is presented visually, the confusion during recall is for letters that sound alike, which supports the theory that information is usually stored acoustically in short-term memory [See R. Conrad, 1964, Acoustic confusions in immediate memory. British Journal of Psychology, 1964, 55, 76-84].
Additional Information: Multi-Store Model, Multicomponent Model of Working Memory
A loss of memory for autobiographical information is referred to as: Select one: A. functional amnesia B. anterograde amnesia C. retrograde amnesia D. malingering
Correct Answer is: A
Functional amnesia is a condition, caused by a psychological trauma, in which individuals are unable to remember significant events in their lives, i.e., autobiographical information.
Anterograde amnesia* is an impaired ability to form new permanent memories. Retrograde amnesia* is an inability to recall previous memories (i.e., for events that occurred prior to a head trauma), and is not necessarily for, or limited to, autobiographical information. Someone who is malingering* could feign memory loss for autobiographical memories; however, most cases of autobiographical memory loss are not due to malingering (* incorrect options).
Additional Information: Amnesia
A student who is aware of the serial position effect, should pay more attention to:
Select one:
A. material studied at the beginning of a study session
B. material studied at the end of a study session
C. material studied during the middle of a study session
D. an older sibling’s advice
Correct Answer is: C
The serial position effect refers to the tendency to best recall the first (primacy effect) and last (recency effect) items studied. Thus, a student who is aware of this phenomenon should pay more attention to the material studied during the middle of a study session, since that material is most likely to be forgotten.
Additional Information: Serial Position Effect
A person who has previously learned Spanish takes some French courses. When she tries to speak Spanish again, she mixes some French words in. This is an example of Select one: A. poor retrieval strategies. B. cue based forgetting. C. proactive inhibition. D. retroactive interference.
Correct Answer is: D
Proactive and retroactive interference, or inhibition, are models of memory or learning failures that occur due to the interference of other learned information. In retroactive interference, more recently learned information or tasks interfere with previous learning and cause forgetting or impairment of learning of the latter. The question describes an example of retroactive interference: The more recently learned language interferes with memory for the previously learned one. Proactive interference is the reverse of retroactive interference. It occurs when previously learned information interferes with that which was more recently learned.
Additional Information: Interference Theory
If a person learns a behavior through modeling coupled with external reinforcement, why, according to Bandura, would that behavior continue in the absence of a model or external reinforcement?
Select one:
A. The accomplishment of new behavioral skills can be reinforcing in itself.
B. The process of response generalization makes further modeling and reinforcement unnecessary.
C. The process of classical conditioning ensures that the behavior will continue, as long as antecedent stimulus conditions remain the same.
D. Individuals do not need any type of motivation to learn a new behavior; mere exposure to a model is sufficient.
Correct Answer is: A
According to Bandura, the effectiveness of modeling is mediated by four processes: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Motivation may but does not necessarily involve external reinforcement; it is also possible that behaviors learned through modeling can be internally or self-reinforcing (e.g., pride and satisfaction in accomplishment can operate as motivators).
Individuals do not need any type of motivation to learn a new behavior; mere exposure to a model is sufficient.
You might have learned that Bandura does not believe that reinforcement is necessary for a behavior to occur and, as a result, chosen this option. However, this is incorrect because mere exposure to a model is not sufficient for learning; the person must attend to the model, retain the model’s behavior, have the capability to reproduce the behavior, and be motivated to engage in the behavior.
Additional Information: Bandura’s Observational Learning
In a study, subjects are asked to memorize a list of 10 unrelated words. The subjects are then asked to count backwards by 3’s from 99. At 5, 15, and 30 second intervals they are asked to recall the list of words. The reason the subjects are asked to count backwards is to:
Select one:
A. stimulate proactive interference
B. stimulate retrograde amnesia
C. enhance concentration
D. prevent subjects from rehearsing the list of words
Correct Answer is: D
Without the opportunity to rehearse newly learned information it cannot be retained for more than a very brief period. This study apparently used counting backwards as a way to prevent subjects from rehearsing the list of words in order to evaluate the duration of short-term memory.
stimulate proactive interference
Proactive interference (or inhibition) occurs when previous learning interferes with more recent learning.
stimulate retrograde amnesia
Retrograde amnesia is a failure to remember events that occurred prior to a trauma. Retrograde amnesia should not be confused with retroactive interference or inhibition – which occurs when new learning interferes with the recall of prior learning.
Additional Information: Interference Theory
To reduce a client's fear of cats, a behavioral psychologist has the client imagine approaching a cat and then, when anxiety occurs, pair that image with deep muscle relaxation. This technique is known as: Select one: A. covert sensitization. B. guided imagery. C. implosive therapy. D. reciprocal inhibition.
Correct Answer is: D
You may have been looking for counterconditioning or systematic desensitization as the correct response. Both involve reducing anxiety by pairing it with relaxation or other incompatible response. This technique was originally described by Wolpe, who referred to it as reciprocal inhibition.
Additional Information: Systematic Desensitization
A group of undergraduate students learn a list of new material. Half of the students then spend the next 8 hours awake while the other half sleep before being tested on the material. Which of the following results would most likely be expected?
Select one:
A. the students that stay awake will remember more because they will have more opportunity for post event rehearsal
B. the students that sleep will remember more because they will experience less retroactive interference.
C. the students that sleep will remember more because they have less opportunity for memory decay
D. the groups will perform similarly because the retention interval is the same for both.
Correct Answer is: B
Understanding what retroactive and proactive interference (or inhibition) are would help you answer this question. Retroactive interference occurs when a person’s ability to recall X is difficult because of interference by something learned after X. In other words, new learning interferes with the recall of prior learning. Additionally, the longer the period of time between learning X and being tested on it, the greater the opportunity for retroactive interference. Proactive interference occurs when the ability to recall X is impaired by previously learned material. Proactive interference can occur regardless of how long the interval is between learning X and recalling it. Finally, retroactive and proactive interference are most likely to be a problem for information that is not inherently meaningful, which would be the case for a set of unrelated words.
A candidate for the psychology licensing exam wants to maximize his long-term memory of all of the study materials. The most effective learning strategy would be to use: Select one: A. spaced practice B. massed practice C. elaborative rehearsal D. maintenance rehearsal
Correct Answer is: C
Spaced practice* refers to study sessions which are distributed over time, and is generally more effective for retention than massed practice, which is more commonly known as “cramming”. However, elaborative rehearsal, in which a person thinks about the meaning of new information and its relation to information already in memory, results in deeper learning and is considered superior to all forms of “mindless” repetition. Maintenance rehearsal is another term for rote repetition (* incorrect options).
Additional Information: Rehearsal
The tension-reduction hypothesis proposes that alcohol abuse is due to the effects of: Select one: A. tolerance B. withdrawal C. habituation D. conditioning
Correct Answer is: D
Conger’s (1956) tension-reduction hypothesis proposed that alcohol consumption reduces stress, which reinforces alcohol use, resulting in a greater likelihood of alcohol consumption in times of stress. Thus, the basis of the theory is operant conditioning [J. Conger, Reinforcement theory and the dynamics of alcoholism, Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 1956, 17, 296-305]. Subsequent research findings on Conger’s theory have been mixed, leading some researchers to conclude that the theory is overly simplistic.
Additional Information: Etiology (Substance Use Disorders)
A bell is repeatedly paired with food resulting in a conditioned response. The bell is then paired with a light until it too produces the conditioned response. If the light is then presented without food this would be an example of: Select one: A. Blocking B. Classical extinction C. Higher-order conditioning D. Discriminative stimulus
Correct Answer is: B
This question attempted to distract you with a description of higher-order conditioning. However, the key to the question was the last sentence, which described the more basic procedure of classical extinction.
Additional Information: Techniques Based on Classical Extinction
A child's ability to maintain a mental picture of a toy even after it is removed is called: Select one: A. flashbulb memory B. method of loci C. eidetic imagery D. sustained attention
Correct Answer is: C
Eidetic imagery, or photographic memory, is associated with improved ability to memorize information and tends to be more common in children.
Another strategy for improving recall using visual images, is the method of loci, which involves associating items to be remembered with mental images of places or specific items. This is useful for recalling information in a specific order. Flashbulb memory describes vivid, detailed memories of emotionally-charged or surprising events. Sustained attention* is the ability to direct and focus cognitive activity on specific stimuli over an extended period (* incorrect options).
Additional Information: Mnemonic Devices
To improve the accuracy of the eyewitness testimony of a six-year-old child, it is advisable to
Select one:
A. practice with the child before the testimony is given.
B. ask yes-no questions.
C. ask the same question more than once.
D. ask open-ended questions.
Correct Answer is: D
Research with children aged four to eight has shown that they have reliable memories and can give credible eyewitness testimony, but the questioner needs to be knowledgeable about children and ask the right types of questions. For instance, open ended questions, as opposed to yes-no questions are more effective, because the latter tend to function as cues or suggestions regarding how children are expected to answer. Also, repeating the same question can compromise the accuracy of children’s testimony, because it could suggest to the child that her previous answer was unacceptable.
When undertaking token economies with seriously disturbed individuals in mental institutions, one of the major problems with the program's efficacy has to do with Select one: A. generalization of behaviors. B. choice of reinforcers. C. exchange ratio. D. reinforcement value.
Correct Answer is: A
Use of a token economy involves administering secondary reinforcers such as a token each time the person engages in a desired behavior, or taking away a reinforcer when a person engages in an undesired behavior. The tokens can then be exchanged for primary reinforcers such as food or desired activities. Token economies are commonly used in institutional settings. A problem with them is that behaviors learned often fail to generalize to the real world, since tokens are not available in the real world every time we do something right.
Additional Information: Token Economy
A study participant is given a list of unrelated words to remember and then performs a distracting task for 10 seconds prior to recalling the listed words in any order. In this situation, the words \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ of the list will be recalled the poorest. Select one: A. in the beginning B. in the beginning and middle C. in the middle D. at the end
Correct Answer is: C
This question is asking about the serial position effect, which predicts that the poorest recall will be for information in the middle of a list. When there is no delay between exposure to the list and recall, words at the beginning and end of a list are recalled the best. However when there is a brief delay, words at the beginning of the list are recalled best. The serial position effect is believed to occur because material presented at the beginning is transferred to long-term memory, while information at the end is still in short-term memory. Whereas, information in the middle can be affected by interference from information that came before and afterwards, preventing storage in short- or long-term memory.
Additional Information: Serial Position Effect
In the classical conditioning paradigm, backward conditioning has been found to be:
Select one:
A. ineffective.
B. moderately effective.
C. more effective than simultaneous conditioning.
D. more effective than delayed conditioning.
Correct Answer is: A
Backward conditioning occurs when the UCS precedes the CS. Think of it as giving Spot the food and then sounding the buzzer. What would you expect? Do you really think that Spot would pay any attention to the buzzer once he had his Alpo? Hardly. He’s probably too busy gulping down his chopped liver to have any attention channels available to perceive your experimental buzzer. So, the answer must be that backward conditioning has no true effect. For classical conditioning to be effective, the CS must precede the UCS. Then, after a sufficient number of pairings, the response can be elicited by the CS only.
Additional Information: Factors That Affect the Effectiveness of Classical Conditioning
The behavioral technique known as flooding is based on the theoretical principle of Select one: A. reciprocal inhibition. B. covert desensitization. C. classical extinction. D. negative reinforcement.
Correct Answer is: C
In flooding, the patient is exposed to a feared stimulus. The technique is based on the principle of classical extinction, which involves repeatedly presenting a conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. The idea is that the fear developed through classical conditioning, or a pairing of a conditioned stimulus (the feared stimulus) and an unconditioned stimulus (a stimulus that naturally causes fear). For instance, a fear of dogs might have been developed through a pairing of a dog (the conditioned stimulus) and a frightening event associated with a dog, such as a dog bite (the unconditioned stimulus). Classical extinction involves “unpairing” the conditioned and the unconditioned stimulus – for instance, repeatedly exposing the person to dogs that don’t bite.
Additional Information: Techniques Based on Classical Extinction
Normal aging is most likely to negatively affect: Select one: A. semantic memory B. episodic memory C. remote long-term memory D. crystalized intelligence
Correct Answer is: B
Normal aging has been found to most affect episodic memory which contains memory for specific events including one’s autobiography.
Semantic memory* and remote long-term memory* are not affected by normal aging. Cystalized intelligence, the ability to recall and use learned information, remains stable or may increase during mid-adult years ( incorrect options). In contrast, fluid intelligence, the ability to solve problems, form concepts, and see complex relationships, decreases with advancing age.
The concept of "identical elements" is most applicable to: Select one: A. personnel selection B. employee training C. job analysis D. Equity Theory
Correct Answer is: B
Identical elements is a concept based on the work of learning theorists Thorndike and Woodworth in 1901. It refers to the notion that training is best transferred over to situations which are similar to, or which have “identical elements” with, the training environment. Research has confirmed that identical elements improves transfer of training for both verbal and motor tasks.
Additional Information: Edward Thorndike
Behavioral assessments are useful for determining behavioral: Select one: A. contingencies B. consequences C. constraints D. interventions
Correct Answer is: A
A behavioral assessment identifies “contingencies,” which is a term for the antecedents of and consequences that maintain the behavior one is planning to alter. While a behavioral assessment may be undertaken to determine the best behavioral treatment, it may also be done for research purposes with no goal of offering treatment, or to see if a previous treatment was effective.
Behavioral contingencies is more inclusive than “consequences” or “interventions”, and therefore the correct answer.
Additional Information: Techniques That Combine Reinforcement and Punishment
A heuristic strategy that makes judgments only on the obvious characteristics of the problem, not requiring additional information and solves the problem based on the initial facts presented is: Select one: A. working backward. B. representativeness. C. means-end analysis. D. availability.
Correct Answer is: B
Heuristics represent a “best guess” strategy to solving problems. They can involve a systematic evaluation of the problem or represent cognitive short-cuts for problem solving. While a solution is not guaranteed and errors can occur, heuristics can provide a solution in less time than algorithms.
working backward.
The working backward heuristic, commonly used in systems of formal logic, is a strategy that finds a solution by literally using the end point to suggest connections to the starting point.
means-end analysis.
The means-end analysis divides a problem into a series of sub-problems, with solution of the sub-problems then leading to a solution to the entire problem.
availability.
The availability heuristic uses information easily remembered or observed and solutions are based on the most recent information that can be brought to mind.
Additional Information: Heuristics
Which of the following is an application of negative punishment? Select one: A. D.R.O. B. overcorrection C. Premack Principle D. time-out
Correct Answer is: D
Negative punishment is used to decrease a behavior by taking away a stimulus. In time-out, undesirable behaviors are reduced by taking away opportunities for positive reinforcement for a specified period of time.
Additional Information: Reinforcement and Punishment
A behavioral treatment that involves manipulating environmental cues and one's responses to them is known as Select one: A. stimulus control. B. stimulus discrimination. C. response contingency. D. cue contingency.
Correct Answer is: A
Stimulus control involves manipulating cues, or stimuli in the environment that, when present, increase the probability of a particular response. It can involve reducing the strength of a cue that triggers a behavior targeted for elimination, or increasing the strength of one that triggers a desired behavior. For example, stimulus control in the treatment of an addictive or compulsive behavior such as substance use or overeating might involve assignments that reduce exposure to cues that trigger the behavior, have the person delay her response to these cues, and increase exposure to cues that trigger alternative behaviors. Stimulus control is also effective in treating insomnia; in this case, the person is taught to avoid cues associated with sleeplessness (e.g., by getting out of bed if unable to fall asleep within ten minutes), and increasing the ritualization of sleep behaviors in order to strengthen cues associated with sleep.
stimulus discrimination.
Regarding this choice, it is true that stimulus control is based on the principle of stimulus discrimination, whereby stimuli that have been associated with positive reinforcement for a particular behavior increase the probability that a behavior will occur in their presence. But the therapeutic technique itself is called stimulus control.
Additional Information: Stimulus Control, Stimulus Discrimination and Generalization
The basic requirements of a token economy are:
Select one:
A. stimulus sensitization, choice of tokens, rate of exchange.
B. target behaviors, choice of reinforcers, rate of exchange.
C. goal setting, staff cooperation, choice of reinforcers.
D. target behaviors, choice of tokens, primary reinforcers.
Correct Answer is: B
To institute a token economy program, you need to know the behaviors you want to change (the target behaviors). You also need to know what is reinforcing for the client (choice of reinforcer). For a hospitalized schizophrenic, it might be walking around; for a child, it might be a candy treat. You also need to know the relationship between token and the reinforcer (rate of exchange); that is, how many tokens will purchase the reinforcer.
Additional Information: Token Economy
A woman whose husband tells her that a woman he knows at work is not bad looking replies "you think I'm ugly." From the perspective of cognitive therapy, this statement can be labeled as Select one: A. a selective abstraction. B. a personalization C. an overgeneralization D. dichotomous thinking
Correct Answer is: B
Aaron Beck, the founder of cognitive therapy, identified a number of cognitive distortions, or errors in logic and interpretation that contribute to negative automatic thoughts and therefore to depression. One of these, personalization, involves relating external events to oneself even when there is no logical basis to do so. In this case, the woman is relating the husband’s comments about someone else to herself when there appears to be no logical reason to do so. Therefore, personalization is the best choice here.
Regarding the other choices, selective abstraction occurs when one detail is taken out of context and used to draw a conclusion while ignoring other more salient features of a situation. Overgeneralization refers to drawing a general rule or conclusion based on one or a few isolated cases and applying the concept to other unrelated situations. And dichotomous thinking involves categorizing all experiences into one of two opposite categories (e.g., good-bad, competent-incompetent).
Additional Information: Cognitive Distortions (Beck)
Bandura’s research looking at the impact of punishing a model for acting aggressively on male and female observers showed that
Select one:
A. when the model is punished, male and female children are more likely to act aggressively than when the model is rewarded.
B. when the model is punished, performance (but not learning) of aggressive behaviors is reduced.
C. when the model is punished, learning and performance of aggressive behaviors are both reduced.
D. when the model is punished, male and female children are less likely to agree that aggressiveness is acceptable.
Correct Answer is: B
In his work on observational learning, Bandura found evidence for his theory that learning and performance are separate phenomena and that learning can occur without reinforcement. For example, in the study described in this question, children learned aggressive responses by watching an aggressive model (even when the model was punished) and, consequently, were able to imitate the aggressive behavior when told they would be rewarded for doing so. Interestingly, boys (but not girls) who were rewarded for imitating the aggressive model were more likely to do so when the model had been punished than when the model had been rewarded.
Additional Information: Bandura’s Observational Learning
The goal of psychology, for Watson, was to:
Select one:
A. predict and control behavior
B. discover the elements of thought
C. discover the mind-body connection
D. demonstrate how similar humans and nonhuman animals are to one another.
Correct Answer is: A
Watson’s theory of behaviorism (also referred to as learning perspective) is based on the assertion everything organisms do, think and feel are behaviors. Watson’s view on behavior was that it was purely elicited and believed that individuals did not experience emotions but rather they were responses to other stimuli. Watson’s goal for classical behaviorism or classical conditioning was to create a more objective science and from this behavior could be predicted and controlled.
Additional Information: Watson
If a depressed person is ignored by one of his colleagues at work, he is least likely to explain the colleague’s behavior with which of following statements?
Select one:
A. It’s like I’m invisible around here.
B. He is very busy today.
C. This company has a culture of rudeness.
D. What a jerk!
Correct Answer is: B
This question refers to the Hopelessness Theory of Depression (HTD) and research investigating it. According to this theory, individuals with a depressogenic attribution style are more vulnerable to depression that others. This style involves making internal, stable, and global attributions for, or causal explanations of, negative events, as opposed to external, unstable, and specific attributions.
“It’s like I’m invisible around here.”
This choice represents an internal attribution.
“He is very busy today.”
Only this choice attributes the colleagues’ behavior to an external (the colleague not the person), unstable (he is busy) and specific (today) cause. Research does show that depressed individuals tend to explain negative events in terms of internal, stable, and global causes, though it has not been established that this truly represents a cognitive tendency which causes depression.
“This company has a culture of rudeness.”
This represents a global attribution.
“What a jerk!”
This represents a stable attribution.
Additional Information: Reformulated Learned Helplessness Model
All of the following therapies are considered part of the "third wave" of behavior therapy except: Select one: A. acceptance and commitment therapy B. mindfulness training C. dialectical behavior therapy D. systematic desensitization
Correct Answer is: D
The first wave of behavior therapy refers to traditional behavior therapy, which employs the learning principle of conditioning to replace harmful behaviors with constructive ones. The second wave of behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, is used to change the thoughts that cause and perpetuate problem behaviors. While the first and second wave therapies are focused mainly on immediate problems, the third wave of behavior therapy, emphasizes the broad constructs of values, spirituality, relationships, and mindfulness. Traditionally non-clinical treatment techniques such as acceptance, mindfulness, cognitive defusion, dialectics, values, spirituality, and relationship development are being explored and the definition, causes and diagnosis of psychological problems and treatment goals of psychotherapy are re-examined.
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) is part of the third wave in behavior therapy. ACT therapists initially encourage a client to accept the circumstances of his/her life “as is” without judgment and then guides him/her in a progression of identifying a set of his/her core values. Once these values are identified, the focus of therapy is making short and long term commitments to act in ways that affirm and expand these values. In general, diagnosing and treating a specific mental illness is set aside as, in therapy, healing comes as a result of living a value-driven life rather than controlling or eradicating a particular set of symptoms. (See: Hayes, S., Masuda, & De Mey (2003). Acceptance and commitment therapy, relational frame theory, and the third wave of behavioral and cognitive therapies. Behavior Therapy. Vol 35, Issue 4, 639-665.)
Additional Information: Systematic Desensitization
A study shows that individuals with left-leaning or socialist political outlooks adopt more positive viewpoints towards large corporations after accepting a low paying job in one. This study provides evidence for Select one: A. Lewin's field theory. B. Freud's structural theory. C. the James-Lange theory of emotion. D. cognitive dissonance theory.
Correct Answer is: D
According to cognitive dissonance theory, simultaneously holding two contradictory ideas or cognitions causes an uncomfortable feeling known as cognitive dissonance, and people have a drive to reduce this dissonance by changing one of the cognitions. This theory has been used to explain results of research in which subjects were induced to behave in a manner contradictory to their stated attitudes. For instance, in an early study on this phenomenon, subjects were instructed to write a counter-attitudinal essay and were paid either $20 or $1 for doing so. Afterwards, subjects in the $1 group displayed significant attitude change in the direction of the opinions in their essays, whereas subjects in the $20 showed no attitude change. According to the researchers, the $1 group experienced dissonance between two cognitions–“I disagree with this point of view” and “I wrote an essay espousing this point of view.” Therefore, to reduce dissonance, subjects had to change their attitude to support the viewpoints of the essay. The $20 group did not experience dissonance or attitude change because the external incentive of money could justify their behavior. The question describes a situation that appears similar to the above experiment. From the perspective of the theory, the individuals may have two conflicting cognitions “As a leftist, I don’t like large corporations” and “I work for a large corporation.” Therefore, they may be motivated to change their attitude in a positive direction towards corporations.
Additional Information: Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Avoidance behavior is difficult to treat because:
Select one:
A. classical conditioning models don’t apply.
B. treatments require unacceptable levels of pain or other aversive applications.
C. the feared stimulus is never presented.
D. conditioning was done originally on an intermittent schedule.
Correct Answer is: C
This is a familiar question. You might have seen something like it before. Once you change the terms into “English,” it shouldn’t be difficult. Basically it says that a fear (think of a phobia) is difficult to treat because you hardly ever confront it. If someone is afraid of bridges and never travels across a river on a bridge, you can never treat the person. Remember that treatments for phobias include at some point directly confronting the fear, through direct exposure to the feared object. If we avoid the object, we never get the chance to extinguish the reaction. None of the other alternatives comes as close to answering the question. As a test-taking strategy, it’s a good idea to translate a question into “English” and give it a simple and exaggerated example. Then, find the answer that best explains your example.
Additional Information: Escape and Avoidance Learning
The ability to unconsciously monitor the contents of one conversation while consciously focusing on another is referred to as: Select one: A. change blindness B. the cocktail-party phenomenon C. exogenous attention D. endogenous attention
Correct Answer is: B
The cocktail-party phenomenon is a characteristic of selective attention which indicates that even when you are intently focusing on one conversation and unaware of another, the mention of your name will immediately get your attention.
Change blindness* refers to difficulty perceiving major changes to unattended-to parts of a visual image when the changes are introduced during brief interruptions in the presentation of the image (See: Rensink, R.A. (2005). Change Blindness. In L. Itti, G. Rees, and J.K. Tsotsos (eds). Neurobiology of Attention. (pp. 76-81). San Diego, CA: Elsevier.)
Exogenous attention* refers to the automatic attraction of attention, due to, among others, the sudden appearance of a stimulus. This is a typical bottom-up process, controlled by external stimulus presentation, and not under subjects’ control. Endogenous attention* refers to a typical top-down, attentional effort under control of the individual, for example, when attention is being focused on the basis of instructions (* incorrect options).
Additional Information: Attention
An elementary school-aged child with symptoms of generalized anxiety participates in a treatment that involves exposure, or practicing approaching and confronting a feared situation or object, and rewards her when she does so. This is called: Select one: A. family anxiety management (FAM). B. exposure. C. systematic desensitization. D. reinforced practice.
Correct Answer is: D
Like exposure, reinforced practice involves practicing approaching and confronting a feared situation or object, to make confronting it easier. However, unlike exposure, reinforced practice rewards the child when he/she does so.
Family Anxiety Management (FAM) teaches parents to reward the child for confronting his/her feared situation or object, and ignore excessive complaining when confronted with his/her feared situation or object. Systematic desensitization* involves encouraging the child to imagine his/her feared object or situation while he/she is engaged in a response that is incompatible with anxiety (e.g. relaxation or play), instead of physically exposing them to the feared object or situation (* incorrect options).
Additional Information: Generalized Anxiety Disorder
When an animal's normal response rate is restricted, that behavior becomes more preferred and therefore reinforcing. This is a description of: Select one: A. probability-differential theory B. response deprivation theory C. matching law D. maximizing law
Correct Answer is: B
All of the response choices are explanations or theories of operant/instrumental conditioning. Timberlake and Allison’s response deprivation theory proposes when an animal’s normal response rate (e.g., eating food) is restricted (e.g., by food deprivation), that behavior becomes more preferred and therefore reinforcing.
probability-differential theory
The probability-differential theory, also known as the Premack Principle, claims that an activity will have reinforcing properties when its probability of occurrence is greater than that of the behavior it is intended to reinforce.
matching law
Herrnstein’s matching law, based on economic principles of costs and rewards, predicts that when an animal can choose from two or more simultaneously available reinforcement contingencies, that responding to each contingency will be proportional to the reinforcement on each schedule.
maximizing law
In contrast, the maximizing law proposes an animal will respond in a manner to achieve the maximum rate/number of rewards possible.
Additional Information: Matching Law (Operant Conditioning)
Memories that are recalled without conscious effort are referred to as: Select one: A. episodic B. explicit C. implicit D. semantic
Correct Answer is: C
Implicit memories are retrieved without conscious awareness and are also referred to as procedural memories which consist mostly of skilled responses, actions or procedures. Procedural memory is one of the two types of long-term memory.
episodic
Episodic memory consists of autobiographical memories or memories for personal events.
explicit
The other type of long-term memory is declarative or explicit memory, which consists of episodic and semantic memory.
semantic
Semantic memory contains memories of general knowledge (e.g., language and facts).
Additional Information: Types of Long-Term Memory, Multi-Store Model
Memories of one's personal experiences are contained in which aspect of long-term memory: Select one: A. semantic B. procedural C. implicit D. episodic
Correct Answer is: D
Episodic memory consists of autobiographical memories or memories for personal events.
Semantic memory* contains memories of general knowledge. Episodic and semantic memory are the two divisions of declarative memory, one of the two types of long-term memory. The other type of long-term memory is procedural. Procedural memory* contains memories of skilled responses and actions. Implicit memory* refers to memories that are recalled without conscious effort (* incorrect options).
Additional Information: Types of Long-Term Memory, Multi-Store Model
A parent finds that she has to nag her son more and more to get him to stop teasing his sister. The last time it happened, the boy finally stopped his teasing after his mother's 16th angry request. The boy's compliance is best described as the result of Select one: A. escape conditioning. B. avoidance conditioning. C. stimulus discrimination. D. stimulus generalization.
Correct Answer is: A
In this situation, the boy stops teasing his sister because, presumably, this stops his mother’s nagging. In other words, by complying with her request, he escapes an aversive stimulus.
Additional Information: Escape and Avoidance Learning
A primary reinforcer is the same as: Select one: A. A conditioned reinforcer B. The first reinforcer used C. Pseudoconditioning D. An unconditioned reinforcer
Correct Answer is: D
A primary reinforcer is the same as an unconditioned reinforcer. These are items that acquire their reinforcing value without special training. Food and water are examples of primary reinforcers.
Additional Information: Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
Which of the following best describes the distinction between shaping and chaining?
Select one:
A. shaping involves reinforcement for successive approximations of a single behavior; chaining involves providing a chain of reinforcement for one behavior
B. shaping involves providing successive approximations of a reinforcer for a given behavior over a period of time; chaining involves reinforcing multiple behaviors with the same reinforcers
C. shaping involves reinforcing component parts of one simple behavior; chaining involves many simple behaviors that are linked to form a more complex behavior
D. there is no distinction between these two terms; they are essentially synonymous
Correct Answer is: C
The correct choice best describes the distinction between shaping and chaining. Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations of a single behavior as the person approaches that behavior. For instance, an autistic individual learning to speak might be reinforced first for moving his mouth, then for uttering nonsense sounds, and then for saying a particular word. The successive approximations being reinforced are all components of one behavior. Chaining, on the other hand, involves linking a group of simple behaviors to form a more complex response chain. For instance, a child learning to put on his shirt might first learn to open the drawer, then put his shirt on over his head, and then button the shirt. Each of these behaviors is a separate behavior, but can be linked as a set to constitute the more complex behavior of putting on the shirt.
Additional Information: Techniques that Use Reinforcement
"Flashbulb memories" are vivid memories of emotionally-arousing events. Flashbulb memories are considered part of Select one: A. procedural memory. B. implicit memory. C. episodic memory. D. prospective memory.
Correct Answer is: C
Like other episodic memories, flashbulb memories are for events that involve specific people, places, or things and that occurred at a specific time.
Additional Information: Flashbulb Memory
When a person is given time to remember a list of unrelated words and is then immediately asked to recall the words in any order, he will recall words at the beginning and the end of the list to about the same degree and better than words in the middle of the list. If there is a brief delay (10 or 30 seconds) and they are asked to engage in a distractor task between studying the words and recalling them, the person will
Select one:
A. recall words at the end of the list best.
B. recall words at the beginning of the list best.
C. recall words in the middle of the list best.
D. recall words in the beginning, middle, and end of the list to about the same degree.
Correct Answer is: B
This question is asking about the serial position effect, which predicts that the poorest recall will be for information in the middle of a list. Research on the serial position effect has shown that memory for information at the beginning and end of a list varies, depending on whether there is a delay before recall is required. When there is a brief delay and a distractor, memory for information at the beginning of the list is better than memory for information at the end of the list.
Additional Information: Serial Position Effect
According to M. Seligman’s theory of learned optimism, a student with an optimistic attribution style who fails an exam in a class which he usually does well in is most likely to say:
Select one:
A. “I was unlucky”
B. “I didn’t study enough”
C. “the teacher is always a tough grader”
D. “the test was hard this time”
Correct Answer is: D
In Seligman’s theory of learned optimism, attributions of optimistic people are believed to be the opposite of attributions of depressed people. Since depressed people make internal, stable, and global attributions to negative events, optimistic people would tend to make external, unstable, and specific attributions in response to negative events. Therefore, we can readily eliminate “I didn’t study enough” since that’s an internal attribution. “The teacher is always a tough grader” is a stable attribution.
That leaves two choices (“I was unlucky” and “the test was hard this time”) - which are both external and unstable attributions. Of the two, however, “the test was hard this time” is better since being unlucky would imply that success is a matter of luck.
Additional Information: Reformulated Learned Helplessness Model
Meta-cognition has been defined as “knowing about knowing.” A more precise definition might be:
Select one:
A. philosophical knowledge about the nature of knowledge, such as about limits of knowledge and the validity of our observations.
B. scientific knowledge about human knowledge, such as the parts of the brain involved in long-term memory storage and the stages of cognitive development.
C. an individual’s knowledge about his or her own cognitive processing, such as strategies that enhance the efficiency of memorization.
D. knowledge about what somebody else knows.
Correct Answer is: C
Metacognition refers specifically to knowledge we have about our own cognitive processes, rather than about the nature of human knowledge in general.
Additional Information: Metacognition
The misinformation effect (hindsight bias) may be a form of: Select one: A. retroactive interference. B. motivated forgetting. C. repression. D. proactive interference.
Correct Answer is: A
To answer this question, you need to understand what retroactive and proactive interference are. Retroactive interference occurs when your ability to recall X is difficult because of interference by something you learned after X. The longer the period of time between learning X and being tested on it, the greater the opportunity for retroactive interference. Proactive interference occurs when the ability to recall X is impaired by previously learned material. Proactive interference can occur regardless of how long the interval is between learning X and recalling it. Finally, retroactive and proactive interference are most likely to be a problem for information that is not inherently meaningful, which would be the case for a set of unrelated words.
Additional Information: Misinformation Effect
It has been found that abused children often cling to their abusive parents. This can be explained in behavioral terms as the effect of Select one: A. extinction. B. delayed conditioning. C. intermittent reinforcement. D. spontaneous recovery.
Correct Answer is: C
Most abusing parents are abusive only some of the time. Other times they are quite loving and protective. In behavioral terms, this means that the child is on an intermittent reinforcement schedule, and, more specifically, a variable ratio schedule. In other words, any given behavior, including clinging, will be reinforced after a variable and unpredictable number of responses. Intermittent reinforcement schedules, and especially variable ratio schedules, tend to produce behaviors that are difficult to extinguish. This could explain why the clinging behavior continues.
Additional Information: Schedules of Reinforcement
In implosive therapy:
Select one:
A. the client is gradually exposed, through the imagination, to a feared stimulus, one step at a time.
B. a client is immediately exposed, through the imagination, to a feared stimulus at its maximum intensity.
C. the client is gradually exposed, in-vivo, to a feared stimulus, one step at a time.
D. a client is immediately exposed, in-vivo, to a feared stimulus at its maximum intensity.
Correct Answer is: B
Implosive therapy involves imaginal exposure to a feared stimulus. The person is immediately exposed to the stimulus at its maximum intensity. The purpose of implosive therapy is to extinguish a person’s fear; in addition, the technique incorporates psychodynamic themes thought to underlie the fear into the imagery.
Additional Information: Implosive Therapy
A teacher finds out that if she yells at a disruptive boy in class, he will calm down for a few minutes. Over time, her yelling becomes louder and more frequent. Which of the following statements best describes, in behavioral terms, what is happening in this situation?
Select one:
A. The teacher’s yelling is serving as positive reinforcement for the boy, which is why he is becoming more and more disruptive over time.
B. The teacher’s yelling is serving as positive punishment, but the boy is becoming habituated over time.
C. The teacher’s yelling is probably serving as negative punishment for her, because she likely finds the situation to be aversive; however, it is serving as positive punishment for the boy, because he seems to enjoy being yelled at.
D. The teacher’s yelling is serving as positive reinforcement for herself, as she seems to enjoy yelling.
Correct Answer is: B
In behavioral terms, the term “positive” means that a stimulus is applied (not, as implied by this choice, that the stimulus is pleasurable or enjoyable: teacher’s yelling is probably serving as negative punishment for her, because she likely finds the situation to be aversive; however, it is serving as positive punishment for the boy, because he seems to enjoy being yelled at).
In this case, the stimulus being applied is the teacher’s yelling. And punishment means that the stimulus has the effect of reducing a behavior. In this case, the yelling has the effect of temporarily reducing the boy’s disruptiveness, so it is punishment. The question illustrates a disadvantage of punishment – the recipient becomes habituated (which just means he or she gets used to it) and it is necessary to keep increasing the intensity of the punishment for it to be effective.
Additional Information: Reinforcement and Punishment
With regard to strategies for retaining information that one studies for in order to succeed on a test, which of the following statements regarding massed vs. distributed study is most correct?
Select one:
A. massed study requires less time spent studying; distributed study results in better long-term retention.
B. massed study results in better long-term retention; distributed study requires less time spent studying.
C. massed study results in better long-term retention and requires less time spent studying.
D. distributed study results in better long-term retention and requires less time spent studying.
Correct Answer is: D
Massed practice or study (also known as “cramming”) refers to studying in sessions of relatively long duration separated by short time intervals; distributed practice refers to studying over a longer period of time, in sessions separated by relatively greater time periods. Distributed practice is associated with better long-term retention of the study material; with massed practice, the material tends to be quickly forgotten after the test is taken. In addition, with distributed learning, less overall time spent studying is needed to learn the same amount of material than would be required with massed learning. Massed study results in faster learning of material almost by definition, because it is done over a shorter period of time, but the question refers to overall time spent studying, not the total period of time it takes to learn the material.
To remember a list of terms that she must memorize for an exam, a student visualizes all of the objects in her dorm room and then associates each object in the room with one item in the list. The mnemonic device that the student is using is known as the Select one: A. method of loci. B. story method. C. peg method. D. link method.
Correct Answer is: A
A mnemonic device is a method that one can use to enhance memory for specific information. Numerous effective mnemonic devices have been identified; this question describes, one, the method of loci that dates back to Ancient Greek times. It involves identifying a place one is familiar with and associating visual images of different locations within that place to items of information that one must remember. At the time of retrieval, one uses the images of the familiar location as cues for recall of the items. The other choices also describe mnemonic devices. The story method involves constructing a story about the items to be remembered. The peg method involves memorizing a list of words (the “pegs”) that are easily associated with a number, and then associating information that must be remembered to the pegs. In order to facilitate memory of the pegs, a rhyming method (e.g., “one is a bun, two is a shoe”) may be used to generate them. And the link method involves generating images of items that link individual items in a list in some way, and then remembering the links in order recall the whole chain.
Additional Information: Mnemonic Devices
A 17-year-old male involved in a skateboarding accident suffered a head trauma resulting in deficits to his declarative memory. He would likely have the most difficulty:
Select one:
A. riding a skateboard
B. recalling when he rode his first skateboard at 10-years-old
C. recalling his own name
D. recalling what he ate for lunch yesterday
Correct Answer is: D
Declarative or explicit memories are long-term memories that one can consciously recall. They include semantic (factual information) and episodic (personally experienced) memories. Riding a skateboard requires procedural memory. All of the other choices require explicit memory; however, memory deficits due to head trauma or disease usually affect recent long-term memory before affecting remote long-term memory.
Additional Information: Types of Long-Term Memory, Multi-Store Model
Aggressive thoughts result in aggressive behavior, which in turn has the effect of causing others to have aggressive thoughts. This is an example of: Select one: A. reciprocal determinism B. covert modeling C. impulsive aggression D. instinctual drift
Correct Answer is: A
This is an example of Bandura’s (1986) concept of reciprocal determinism. From this perspective, the relationship between personal factors or cognitions, behavior and the environment take turns influencing or being influenced by each other. As in this case, not only does the environment influence thoughts and thoughts impact actions but also actions effect the environment.
Covert modeling* involves the learning of new behaviors or the altering of existing behaviors by imagining scenes of others interacting with the environment. Impulsive aggression* describes emotion-driven aggression produced in reaction to situations in the “heat of the moment.” Instinctual drift* refers to the tendency for learned behavior to drift toward instinctual behavior over time (* incorrect options).
Additional Information: Bandura’s Observational Learning
Negative reinforcement is essential to: Select one: A. escape conditioning. B. punishment. C. aversion conditioning. D. phobias.
Correct Answer is: A
The concept of negative reinforcement involves increasing the likelihood of a behavior through the elimination of an aversive stimulus (the negative part). As you might recall, this is exactly what the dog does by learning to escape the electric shock by jumping to the other side of the cage. This is the classic example of escape conditioning. Jumping to the other side is reinforced by the elimination of the aversive stimulus. You may have chosen punishment, but this is the common error of confusing negative reinforcement with punishment. To avoid this error, keep in mind that reinforcement (whether negative or not) and punishment are antithetical.
Additional Information: Escape and Avoidance Learning
Which of the following concepts was introduced by a National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) work group as a diagnostic entity for changes in memory that come with age?
Select one:
A. Age-Associated Memory Impairment (AAMI)
B. Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI)
C. Cognitive Impairment, Not Dementia (CIND)
D. Benign Senescent Forgetfulness (BSF)
Correct Answer is: A
In most people, the hippocampus shrinks with age and causes mild memory decline. The first attempt to differentiate between normal memory function, pathological memory processes and a mild form of memory loss was introduced by Kral’s concept of benign senescent forgetfulness (BSF). (See: Kral, V.A. (1962). Senescent forgetfulness: Benign and malignant. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 86, 257-260.)
In 1986, a NIMH work group proposed diagnostic criteria of age-associated memory impairment (AAMI). This was the first attempt to operationally define mild cognitive impairment. In identifying individuals with subjectively and objectively evidenced memory loss, without the cognitive decline or impairment to warrant the diagnosis of dementia, the AAMI criteria include: the presence of subjective memory decline; objective evidence of memory loss (in a well-standardized memory test, a score at least one standard deviation below the mean of younger adults); adequate intellectual function; and the absence of dementia or other memory-affecting disease (e.g., stroke) in a person aged 50 years or older. (See: Crook, T.H., Bartus, R.T., Ferris, S.H., Whitehouse, P., Cohen, G.D., & Gershon, S. (1986). Age-associated memory impairment: Proposed diagnostic criteria and measures of clinical change-Report of a National Institute of Mental Health workgroup. Developmental Neuropsychology, 2, 261-276.)
Other terms for the condition of subjective memory problems are Cognitive Impairment, Not Dementia (CIND) and Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI). CIND classifies all cases of cognitive impairment which do not meet the criteria for dementia, usually due to medical or psychiatric conditions. The specific pre-dementia syndrome of Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) is treated as a subcategory among these cases. MCI is described as a transition stage between the cognitive changes of normal aging and the more serious problems caused by Alzheimer’s disease. Individuals with MCI are able to function reasonably well in everyday activities, and are able to manage without assistance. The disorder can be divided into subtypes: amnestic MCI, which significantly affects memory, and nonamnestic MCI, which does not. In either type, functions such as language, attention and visuospatial skills, may be impaired. With MCI, the hippocampus shrinks at a faster rate and causes more severe memory problems than normal aging, although the decline is less rapid than in mild Alzheimer’s disease (See: Bischkopf, J., Busse, A., Angermeyer, M.C. (2002). Mild cognitive impairment: A review of prevalence, incidence and outcome according to current approaches. Acta Psychiatrica Scandaniva, 106, 403-414.)
Additional Information: Memory in Adulthood
The most effective behavioral technique to reduce a school-aged child's temper tantrums is: Select one: A. modeling B. extinction C. positive reinforcement D. negative reinforcement
Correct Answer is: B
Extinction is the elimination or reduction in the frequency of a response achieved by the removal of the reinforcement maintaining the response. The extinction of temper tantrums would entail ignoring the child’s behavior or not reinforcing it with attention. This technique has been found to be effective for reducing temper tantrums.
Positive and negative reinforcement are used to strengthen behaviors. Modeling is used to teach new behaviors which are the incorrect options.
Additional Information: Operant extinction
The levels-of-processing model of memory includes three levels–acoustic, phonetic, and semantic. All three of these levels have been compared to self-referencing, and the findings indicate
Select one:
A. semantic is more easily recalled than the others.
B. self-referencing is more easily recalled than the others.
C. phonetic is most easily recalled.
D. semantic is the most difficult to recall.
Correct Answer is: B
Rogers and associates (Self-reference and the encoding of personal information, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1977, 35, 677-688) found that self-referencing (Have I done this before? Where was I?) results in significantly more recall than semantic referencing. Previous to this finding, semantic processing (“semantic is more easily recalled than the others”) had been considered to be the most effective type of information processing.
Additional Information: Levels of Processing Model
The behavioral technique called thought stopping is exemplified by:
Select one:
A. experimenting with new behaviors in order to dispute irrational beliefs.
B. practicing relaxing while thinking of anxiety provoking images related to smoking.
C. snapping a rubber band on the wrist whenever getting an urge to smoke.
D. recording smoking intake for two weeks.
Correct Answer is: C
Thought stopping is designed to interrupt the seemingly automatic chain of cognitions that are cues to acting impulsively or compulsively or lead to unwanted behavior such as through self-applying an aversive technique.
Additional Information: Thought Stopping
An individual imagining others engaging in a variety of alternative or desirable behaviors is using the technique known as: Select one: A. overcorrection B. simple modeling C. covert sensitization D. covert modeling
Correct Answer is: D
Covert modeling is based on its overt, simple modeling equivalent. Covert modeling involves the learning of new behaviors or the altering of existing behaviors by imagining scenes of others interacting with the environment.
Overcorrection involves an individual consistently being reinforced for engaging in behaviors other than the target behavior during a predetermined period of time. Covert sensitization uses counterconditioning in imagination to reduce or eliminate a target behavior. An individual imagines he/she is engaging in the undesirable behavior and then imagines an aversive consequence for doing so.
Additional Information: Covert Modeling, Covert Sensitization
Which of the following behavioral techniques is the best example of negative punishment?
Select one:
A. differential reinforcement for other behaviors (DRO)
B. response cost
C. reducing the amount of time a child is grounded due to “good behavior”
D. a spanking
Correct Answer is: B
Operant behavioral interventions rely on consequences to increase or decrease the frequency or strength of a behavior, and reinforcement and punishment are the methods used to deliver those consequences. Reinforcement increases the strength or probability of a response, punishment decreases the strength of a response. Reinforcement and punishment can be positive or negative; positive means a stimulus is applied following a response; negative means a stimulus is removed following a response. Thus, negative punishment involves removal of a stimulus following a response in order to decrease that response. Response cost involves removal of a prespecified reward every time a person performs an undesired behavior. For example, a child’s allowance may be reduced or skipped if the child yells at her parents. Thus, of the choices listed, it is the only example of negative punishment.
Additional Information: Techniques That Use Punishment
