9. Social categorisation and social identity

Question 1

Social categorisation (Tajfel, 1978)

Answer 1

It is “the ordering of social environment in terms of groupings of persons in a manner which makes sense to the individual”.

Question 2

Level of category inclusiveness

Answer 2

The inclusiveness of social categories: social categories vary in degree of inclusiveness.
Context informs us which level of inclusiveness is most important.

Question 3

Prototype

Answer 3

A social category member who is believed to possess the typical features of the social category.

Question 4

The accentuation effect

Answer 4

A tendency to exaggerate similarities within categories and differences between categories. Different to the accentuation affect in the group polarization.
If objects in a set are not assigned to categories, people’s perceptions of the objects’ height will be correct. However, when objects are assigned to distinct categories, people will exaggerate differences between categories and similarities within categories, especially if categories are important to the perceivers. This effect not only applies to the physical world, but the social world as well.

Question 5

Outgroup homogeneity

Answer 5

A tendency to perceive and cognitively represent the members of an outgroup as very similar to one another, as being ‘all the same’.
See everyone in the group as being similar to the group prototype. The outgroup prototype is often negative.

Question 6

What are stereotypes?

Answer 6

A stereotype is a generalisation about a social group, in the sense that similar characteristics are ascribed to virtually all group members.
Stereotypes are cognitive shortcuts for understanding others: the “law of least effort” through sketchy representation and ready-to-use beliefs.

Question 7

Stereotype formation

Answer 7

Our tendency to exaggerate intra-group similarities is the basis of stereotype formation.
We learn stereotypes. We teach stereotypes to children. The best way to teach the social word to children about what is safe and what is dangerous. Culturally and generationally transmitted.

Question 8

Law of least effort

Answer 8

Shortcut to gain the most information quickly, not necessarily accurate. Can be very dangerous for social outcomes.

Question 9

Selection of relevant social categories/stereotypes

Answer 9

Are variable and flexible and ever changing.
Category fit: we choose categories that are most relevant and meaningful to the context. Also highest number of members.
Cognitive accessibility: our preconceptions, expectations, desires, and motivations influence the psychological centrality and accessibility of stereotypes and categories.

Question 10

Social categorisation of the self

Answer 10

Self is part of the social world. Assign ourselves to psychologically relevant categories. The categorisation of ourself into categories.
Contextual flexibility and variability as well.

Question 11

Cognitive aspects of self-categories

Answer 11

Self-categories have different degrees of inclusiveness.
Self-categories have their prototypes and exemplars.
The accentuation effect applies to self-categories too -> self-stereotypes. Our differences from the outgroups can become very prominent.

Question 12

Social identity

Answer 12

That part of our self-definition that derives from our membership of social groups. Has to be important and have emotional relevance.

Question 13

Personal identity

Answer 13

That part of our self-definition that derives from our unique, peculiar, idiosyncratic characteristics.

Question 14

Self-categorisation

Answer 14

Allows us to know how we stand in the social world, understand us as separate from others, understand ourselves.
Give us an identity as well as a social identity.

Question 15

Social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979)

Answer 15

A theory that suggests that people belong to social groups and derive a social identity from these groups.

Question 16

Self-categorisation theory (Turner et al., 1987)

Answer 16

A theory about how people come to identify with groups and about the consequences of group (or social) identification, especially in terms of how people think and feel about their fellow ingroup members and the way people behave within the group.

Question 17

Social identity implications for leadership

Answer 17

The ideal leader is expected to be a quintessential representation of the group identity. To the extent that they are seen as an incarnation of the group prototype. Possess all the important group characteristics.
A highly prototypical leader will be able to exert a strong influence on the other group members. Seen as especially qualified to exert and define group norms.

Question 18

Maintaining power through social identity

Answer 18

Create two heterogenous categories. One which is the main ingroup and majority and the other which is a smaller outgroup and is seen as dangerous.
If you are in power need to renew your power by maintaining these types of strategies.

Question 19

The black sheep effect

Answer 19

Is the tendency to criticise and derogate the members of an ingroup who deviate from group norms more harshly than members of outgroups.

Question 20

Group norms and deviance

Answer 20

Existence of a deviant can present an opportunity to reinforce group norms by punishing the deviants.

Question 21

Peripheral (non-prototypical) group members

Answer 21

Peripheral group members employ a variety of strategies in order to feel more prototypical and to be by other ingroup members as such.
Not always deviant just happen to be on the peripheral rather than a core member.
If group membership is not very important to the individual then they are less bothered about being prototypical and employing these strategies.

Question 22

Schism

Answer 22

The group norms that define the group’s identity are not set in stone. Existing norms are constantly refined, adjusted, modified, and in some cases, dropped and replaced with entirely new norms.
But sometimes consensus fails. The crystallization of relatively homogenous factions, each holding different views about what should and should not be the group identity, can result in conflict and tension within the group.

Question 23

Social identity motives

Answer 23

The self-esteem motive
The distinctiveness motive
The motive to belong
The motive to achieve symbolic immortality
The motive for uncertainty reduction

Question 24

The social cure approach (Haslam et al., 2018, Wakefield et al., 2019)

Answer 24

Social identity and symptom perception
Social identity and health behaviour
Social identity, positive physiological processes and health

Question 25

Social identity and symptom perception

Answer 25

Context may affect how severely we feel it. How likely we are to get help in response to symptoms.

Question 26

Social identity and health behaviour

Answer 26

Are they engaged in health promoting behaviours? More likely if they are in line with group norms.

Question 27

Social identity, positive physiological processes and health

Answer 27

By identifying with a group we feel confident they will help. This increases the perceived ability to cope with difficult tasks, which in turn, may reduce stress and cortisol levels and the physiological stress experienced. Physical reactions differ when we identify more with the group.

Question 28

Social categorisation in children

Answer 28

Categories and stereotypes are learnt.
Gender and ethnicity are the two most important and psychologically consequential categories among children. Ability to structure the world in terms of gender and ethnicity. Two of the earliest developing.
Many children start labelling the genders shortly after their second birthdays, and that by 3 years of age all children can use gender as a criterion to sort photographs.
Awareness of ethnic categories develop rapidly after 4 years of age.