11. Gender Flashcards
Elements of biology in gender
Nucleus
DNA
Chromosome
Gene
Nitrogenous bases
Adenine
Guanine
Thymine
Cytosine
Chromosomes
45 out of 46 human chromosomes are the same across males and females.
Only difference between male and female.
Epigenetics
Modifications to genes that don’t permanently change the genes.
Epi - over or above.
Over and above the genes, just altering whether they show up or not.
How epigenetics work?
Gene transcription
Repressor protein turns off gene transcription.
Activator protein increases gene transcription.
Sex differences in at least four related epigenetic parameters
DNA methylation patterns
Methyl transferases
Methyl-binding proteins
Corepressor proteins, all of which can contribute to lasting differences in the brain and behaviour.
Epigenetics is implicated in the basis of gender incongruence
Cis-gendered versus transgendered people and see if they have differences in epigenetics.
The main finding of this study is that cis and trans populations have different global CpG methylation profiles prior to GAHT. Therefore, the results suggest that epigenetics may be involved in the cause of gender incongruence.
Don’t know why people have gender dysphoria but epigenetics is providing a new possibility.
Hormones released from the hypothalamus
TRH
CRH
GHRH
Dopamine
Somatostatin
Vasopressin
Hormones released from the pineal gland
Melatonin
Hormones released from the pituitary gland
GH
TSH
ACTH
FSH
MSH
LH
Prolactin
Oxytocin
Vasopressin
Hormones released from the pancreas
Insulin
Glucagon
Somatostatin
Hormones released from the ovary
Oestrogen
Progesterone
Hormones released from the testes
Androgens
Oestradiol
Inhibin
Unisex embryos
Babies have the same sex organ until 8 weeks old.
Sex organ before it develops - could develop into either a penis or a vagina.
Wolffian duct (male)
Genital tubercle enlarges to form the penis. The male testes form high in the abdomen then descend to scrotum near term.
Mullerian duct (female)
Grow to form ovary and uterus, genital tubercle enlarges and forms the clitoris.
Four layers of sex before birth
- Chromosomal sex
Indifferent foetal sex - Differentiated foetal gonadal sex
- Foetal hormonal sex
- Genital sex
Foetal internal reproductive sex
Brain sex
Chromosomal developmental sexual disorders
Turner syndrome
Klinefelter syndrome
Mixed gonadal dysgenesis
Chromosomal ovotesticular
Turner syndrome
Genotype: 45, XO
Gonadal phenotype: Streak ovaries, no puberty, impaired fertility
Characteristics: short stature, broad chest, webbed neck
Clinical concerns: cardiac and renal concerns, lymphedema
Klinefelter syndrome
Genotype: 47, XXY
Gonadal phenotype: small testes, delayed/incomplete puberty, impaired fertility
Characteristics: Gynecomastia, reduced body/facial hair, tall stature and long extremities
Clinical concerns: Breast cancer, learning disabilities
Mixed gonadal dysgenesis
Genotype: 45 X, 46 XY
Gonadal phenotype: Streak ovary and testis, incomplete puberty, impaired fertility
Characteristics: short stature
Clinical concerns: cardiac and renal defects
Chromosomal ovotesticular
Genotype: 46 XX, 46 XY
Gonadal phenotype: Testicular and ovarian tissue present
Characteristics: Phenotype depends on gonadal hormonal functioning
Clinical concerns: Hypospadias, cryptorchidism
Hormonal DSDs - Androgen insensitivity syndrome
- Chromosomes: XY
- Gonads: testes
- Foetal hormones: testosterone
- Genitals: clitoris, vagina, labia
Baby is born XY and their body starts developing and starts to produce androgens.
Body cannot recognise the androgens.
Develop external looking genitalia but don’t have working ovaries.
After puberty can become confusing as period doesn’t start.
Go to the doctor and find out they’re biologically male.
What does intersexuality do about our understanding of a sex dichotomy?
→ Clinical levels rare; non-clinical levels more common?
→ There may be as many as 1,600,000 intersex individuals.
→ Blurs and bridges the divide between female and male.
Sex
The biological characteristics, including hormones, genes and physiology, that determines whether an individual is understood to be male or female.
Intersex
The appearance of sex characteristics, including hormones, chromosomes, and sexual organs, in an individual which do not conform to traditional definitions of ‘male’ or ‘female’.
Gender
The characteristics, whether biologically or socially influenced, by which people define male and female.
Gender role
The set of social expectations based on gender stereotypes on how a person should act, think, and feel based on their actual or perceived gender.
Gender is a performance, and in a performance actors have roles, and roles are marked by different expectations.
Different ways of signalling feminity or masculinity.
▪ Observable signals (dress, physical space, manners)
▪ Values (why we behave and think the way we do)
▪ Underlying assumptions (what we assume about the world and relationships within it)
Observable signs of masculinity and feminity
Dress:
Emphasise and build on biological aspects.
Physical space:
Mannerisms
Man spreading
Women socialised to take up as little space as possible.
Physically, emotionally not take up space.
A lot of pressure on women to appear physically small.
Values and assumptions of masculinity and femininity
Socialisation of gender roles.
Patriarchal
Men socialised towards career, women towards family and kids.
Bem sex role inventory
This tool is used to explore gender roles and how individuals identify with traditionally masculine, feminine, or neutral traits.
Measured on masculine personality traits and femininity personality traits.
Gender roles does not equal biological sex
Cultures that have non-binary gender systems.
Hijra in India - born biologically male but occupy a non-binary role specific to them
Two spirit people from Native America
Mooches person in Mexican culture.
All for biologically males who occupy a different third gender role.
Blue gill sunfish
Three genders - male, female, and another male role.
Gender roles.
Cuckolders divide into two groups: sneakers and satellites.
70% fall under parental - biggest, alphas, women like. Grow bigger but reach sexual maturity later.
Males take lots of females.
Sneakers and satellites reach sexual maturity much sooner. Smaller in size so difficult to find a mate.
Hit and run style - dart in between male and female mating and release sperm.
If the parental doesn’t kill him after this, he grows to the size of a female and uses a disguise tactic.
Drab colours like female, can enter any nests, when mating release sperm again.
Cuckolder sperm is more potent.
Leach off the protection of the parental fish.
Biological and cultural differences.
PKU
Genetic thing in bodies, cannot eat certain proteins.
Before we knew, they would have more brain damage, their hair would leech all its colour to blonde, eye colour gets lighter until it becomes blue.
Completely manageable using a certain diet.
Both biology and culture.
Hair and eye colour
Hair colour and eye colour changed socially
Hair often changes colour in the sun - social as changed by going to a different environment.
Can also dye hair at will.
Retinal surgeries to change colours of your pupils.
Both biology and culture.
Writer’s callous
Callous grows on your finger.
Genetic predisposition - way you hold the pen
Extent to which you write causes it to become bigger.
Both biology and culture.
Environmental selection
Environmental selection (cultural influences) affects biological development and the species level and the individual level.
And the environment provides cues that activate biological adaptations at the proximal level.
Species level
Humans developed bigger brains. We have a genetic disposition to grow bigger brains, but only occurred when we gained access to meat regularly.
Individual level
Epigenetic factors (second-hand exposure to smoke)
Proximal level
The hormones that flow through your body when you see a snake. Not a permanent life change, but little daily ways our biology and culture interact.
Viala (2011)
Studying first time parents in Denmark found that they set out to be equal, but women were more likely to leave work to pick up the sick kid because her career was seen as less demanding.
Interaction
A relationship in which the effect of one factor (such as biology) depends on another factor (such as environment).
Interaction between genes, culture, and gender
The power of the situation and the person
Social situations do profoundly influence individuals. But individuals also influence social situations. The two interact.
The interaction occurs in at least 3 ways:
1. A given social situation often affects different people differently
2. People often choose their situations
3. People often create their situations
